Historicity of Ramayana

Sri Rama, the hero of Ramayana was an ideal son, ideal husband and ideal friend. He was known for his valour, sense of fair play and justice. His rule was so perfect that the term Ramarajya is synonymous for ideal governance. If we are to agree with the statement of Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle that History is the biography of great men, then bereft of Rama and Ramayana, ancient Indian history would be incomplete. But as of now history books in India refer to Ramayana as an epic and do not ascribe historicity to it. While a foreign scholar like Pargiter says that there is historical truth in the story of Rama’s exile and invasion of Ceylon,¹ an Indian scholar like D.C.Sircar says that Valmiki’s story is an imaginary treatment of a legend supposed to represent an earlier age.¹ In these circumstances is it possible to establish the historicity of Rama and Ramayana?

First we shall make a list of probable issues which causes skeptics to question the historicity of Ramayana including that raised by D.C.Sircar in his work Problems in Ramayana. They are

• Fanciful date assigned to Rama and Ramayana

• Antecedents of Valmiki

• Was Rama an incarnation of Vishnu?

• Is not Rama abandoning pregnant Seeta a blemish on his character?

• If Vanaras were monkeys how could have Rama communicated with them?

• The absurdity of Ravana flying the Aerial Car (Pushpaka Vimana)

• Did Ravana had ten heads and Hanuman flied with a mountain peak?

• Was it possible for Rama to undertake such a hazardous expedition?

The colonial and Marxist historians by propagating the Aryan Invasion Theory have messed up ancient Indian chronology so much so that it was difficult to place the chronology of historical figures like Rama and Krishna. But thanks to the painstaking efforts of objective historians, today we know the ulterior motives of the above school of historians in dishing out such theories and also aware of the fact that the so called Harappan civilization is nothing but the urban representation of the Vedic civilization and it correspond to the period when the Upanishad were composed. Just like the progress in the field of astronomy was possible after the geocentric theory of universe was discarded, similarly chronology for persons and events associated with ancient Indian history can be fixed if the Aryan Invasion Theory is discarded.³ Hence for establishing the historicity of Rama and Ramayana we have to

• Abandon the Aryan Invasion Theory.

• Critically examine the text of Ramayana and

• Interpret fanciful incidents in Ramayana based on reasoning.

Mahabharatha War, Sheet Anchor for fixing ancient Indian Chronology

Date of Rama

According to traditional accounts Rama is assigned to the 2nd of the four yugas, viz, Sathya or Krita yuga (which lasted for 17,28,000 years), Treta yuga (which lasted for 12,96,000 years), Dvapara yuga (which lasted for 8,64,000 years) and Kali yuga (which will last for 4,32,000 years). As Kali yuga of the present cycle started in 3102 B.C., this places Rama time in the Treta yuga nearly 8, 69,000 years, many millennia before the development of human civilization on the earth. Also Rama is said to have ruled for 16,000 years. Hence D.C.Sircar questions the absurd antiquity to which Rama is assigned by the Indian tradition. Yes Sircar is right in arriving at this conclusion; but he himself says that the Yuga division was fabricated by the astronomers about the age of the Imperial Guptas.⁴ Moreover as Pargiter has mentioned the theory of the four ages did not apply to the whole world and it was declared repeatedly that these ages prevailed in India.⁵ Hence we need not take the date assigned to Rama by Indian traditions seriously. But how to arrive at the date of Rama?

The date of Rama can be fixed if we accept one of the few proposed dates of the occurrence of Mahabharatha war (either 3067 B.C. or 2449 B.C.) In the list of Ikshavaku kings given in the Vayu Purana, Rama’s number is 65. He lived 29 generations before Bhrihadbala who participated in the Mahabharatha war. If we take 2449 B.C. as the date of Mahabharatha war and allot 40 years for each king then the date of Rama can be fixed at 3609 B.C.⁶ This date correspond very nearly to the late Veda-Brahmana period. (Navaratna Rajaram (From Saraswati River to the Indus Script- Changing Perceptions, p.73)

Date of Ramayana

Scholars like R.G.Bhandarkar and D.R.Bhandarkar presume that the Ramayana was composed not earlier than 4th century B.C.⁷ while V.Gopala Iyengar in his work- A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature (p.14) writes that the original portion of the Ramayana was composed clearly before 500 B.C., whereas additions (which now scholars have identified as Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda) must have been made some time about 200 B.C. This does not mean that Valmiki composed Ramayana in 5^th or 4^th century B.C. Valmiki was a contemporary of Rama and the latter had visited the former’s ashram during his life in exile in the forest.⁸ Hence Ramayana was composed during the time when Rama lived and the original Valmiki’s Ramayana consisted of book II- VI. The Ramayana composed by Valmiki was passed on from one generation to another orally just like other ancient Indian works like the Vedas and Upanishads. The Mahabharatha reproduces the story of Rama while the Ramayana makes no mention at all of the former. This makes sure that the Ramayana must have been famous before Mahabharatha took a definite shape. As the poem grew very popular interpolations were made purely for professional needs. Hence the dating for the composition of Ramayana by modern scholars should be understood in the sense that over the centuries some portions of the story had gone into oblivion and the scholars of that period (5^th or 4^th century B.C.) were able to retrieve those portions and codified the Ramayana.

Critical examination of Ramayana

Antecedents of Valmiki

Prof. Jacobi after a careful study of the Ramayana has concluded that the original Ramayana consisted of only five Kandas, namely Ayodhya, Aranya, Kishkinda, Sundara and Yuddha. The argument of Jacobi is based on the following grounds.

• The logical conclusion of the plot is found in the coronation of Rama found in the Yuddha kanda. The story is complete with Ramapattabhisheka and even now the usual recital of Ramayana stops with it.

• Indian poets usually conclude their works with a happy incident. Rama’s coronation described at the end of the Yuddha kanda provides a happy and natural ending to the work. The seventh book, Uttara kanda ends with the disappearance of all the main characters which is generally regarded as unhappy and inauspicious.

• There are statements in the Bala Kanda which contradicts those in the others- for example Rama tells Shurpanaka in the Aranya Kanda that Lakshmana is not married while in Bala Kanda describes Lakshmana as married.

• In the Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda Rama is spoken as an incarnation of Vishnu, while in the other five Kandas he has been treated only as human being.

• In the 1^st and 7^th books (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda), there are many stories which have no direct bearing on the main plot of Ramayana while in the books two-six a single connected story is narrative in the kavya style. The stories of Rishyasringa, Vishwamitra, Gangavatarana, etc. narrated in Bala Kanda have no connection with the story of Rama and the Uttara Kanda which contains biographical notes on the characters of the original story can only be treated as a supplement added at a later stage.⁹

With regards to the antecedents of Valmiki we have very scanty information and have to depend mainly on hearsay for the life history of this sage.¹⁰ It is in the interpolated work, book I (Bala Kanda) that we have the story of Valmiki. Even this account is taken from another work Adhyatma Ramayana which is an extract from the Brahmanda Purana. In this Valmiki describes his past history of how by birth he was a Brahmin and unable to control his passion had many children from a Sudra woman and to feed them resorted to robbery. Once confronting a muni (sage) the latter asked Valmiki whether his wife and children consent to Valmiki’s participation in the numerous sins and when Valmiki got a reply, ‘no’ from them, he turned a new leaf, meditated upon the name of Rama and later composed Ramayana.¹¹ As Valmiki himself appears as a character, he could not have composed them.¹² Then who was Valmiki? What is background? For this we can postulate that he was a poet whose earlier occupation must have been that of a hunter. This should not be a surprise as during that age an individual worth was not based on his occupation. To give an example we have the story of Dharma Vyadha in Mahabharatha whose profession was that of a butcher and who taught the essence of Vedanta to a Brahmin. In ancient India people followed the ashrama dharma and during the gruhasthashrama stage Valmiki followed the profession of a hunter and during the vanaprasta and sanyasa stage, left for the forest, build an ashrama (Rama during his exile had visited his ashrama) and later composed Ramayana as he knew about Rama and his exploits.

Was Rama an incarnation of Vishnu?

In Ramayana Rama is depicted as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu for which R.C.Dutt argues that Vishnu had not risen to prominence at the time at which Ramayana took place and it was Indira who was the chief god in the epic age.¹³ But it should be remembered that Valmiki’s Ramayana depicts Rama as a human being and not as an avatarapurusha. It is only in the Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda, both of which have been identified as interpolation to the original Ramayana that Rama is spoken as an incarnation of Vishnu. Hence in the original Valmiki’s Ramayana consisting of book II- VI, Rama is treated as a hero and not as an incarnation.

Is not Rama abandoning pregnant Seeta a blemish on his character?

The story of Rama abandoning pregnant Seeta is not found in the Ramayana written by Valmiki. This story is mentioned in the Uttara Kanda added to the original Ramayana centuries later.

Interpreting fanciful incidents based on Reasoning

If Vanaras were monkeys how could have Rama communicated with them?

The name Vanaras does not have to mean monkeys just like Nagas does not mean snakes. According to Pargiter many powerful races such as Danavas, Daityas, Rakshasas, Nagas were reduced to subjugation and later the names of these races become scornful until at length they ceased to possess any ethnological force and turned into purely evil appellations. For instance the word asura become synonymous with the meaning demon and pishacha the original name of a tribe was turned to mean an impish goblin.¹⁴ The Vanaras along with the Rakshasas, Kinnaras and Yakshas are said to be the progenitors of rishi Pulastya, one among the eight mythical rishis from whom the Brahmin families claim descent.¹⁵ The word Vanar originally meant ‘the dweller of the Vana (forest)’ (Nobin Chandra Das- A Note on the Antiquity of the Ramayana, 1899). Therefore the rakshasas were human beings and so also were the Nagas and the Vanaras. It may be noted that the hero of Mahabharatha Arjuna had married a Naga princess, Ulupi and his brother Bhima had married a rakshasa woman Hidambi. As regards to the language, the Ramayana itself (Sundara Kanda) speaks of two varieties of Sanskrit which were in vogue at that time; one manushi Samskrita, the popular dialect and the Samskrita dvijatiriva, the language spoken by the cultured Brahmins, the shishtas. Hanuman the hero of the Vanaras was a cultured linguist and could speak in both varieties.¹⁶

The absurdity of Aerial Car, Pushpaka Vimana

D.C.Sircar questions the epic narrators’ idea of Ravana carrying away Seeta in an aerial car (Pushpaka Vimana) and the return of Rama from Lanka to Ayodhya by the same car. If flying cars were in use in ancient India, foreigners like Alexander’s historians and the Chinese and Arab travellers like Hiuen Tsang and Al biruni would have certainly mentioned them especially as they were unknown in their own countries.¹⁷ Sircar’s reasoning is quite appropriate. But why did Valmiki spoke about Pushpaka Vimana? We must remember that Valmiki was a poet and to indulge in imagination is every poet’s right. Valmiki may have used the word Pushpaka Vimana as a metaphor to describe the swift moving chariot used by Ravana to flee to Lanka after abducting Seeta. It was through this royal chariot that Rama returned back to Ayodhya from Lanka.

Communicated through Ramasetu

Then the question arises as how Seeta was abducted or rakshasas like Ravana and Surpanaka traversed between Lanka and Janasthana (south India). For this we have to hypothesize that through the bridge (Ramasetu) which existed between India and Lanka that the asuras including Shurpanaka came to India. In the Aranya kanda it is said that Ravana possessed a narrow strip of land along the coast of south India, while the rest of south India then known as Kishkinda was in the possession of Vali.^`18 By this we can presume that a bridge already existed for the rakshasas to communicate between India and Lanka. Ravana abducted Seeta and reached Lanka through this bridge. Hanuman came to Lanka through this bridge and after meeting Seeta returning back, destroyed some parts of the city. This event may have disturbed Ravana who thought that Rama may come to Lanka and had the bridge destroyed. (This is similar to what defeated armies do like destroying bridges, livestock and food when retreating so that the enemy’s progress is hindered). Rama with the help of Nala and the Vanaras rebuilt the bridge and as he was the victor in the war, the bridge was named after him as Ramsethu.

Ravana with ten heads and Hanuman flying with a mountain peak

No sane person is willing to believe that a person can possess ten heads (Ravana) or a person however strong he may be in physical strength can fly carrying a mountain (Hanuman). As mentioned earlier, Valmiki was a poet and used similes to describe certain awesome events. Even inscriptions which historians rely upon to construct the history of kings and dynasties, contains similes. For instance Harihara II, the Vijayanagara ruler is called in one of his records as ‘a lion to the scent elephant of the Andhra king.’ We cannot take the literary meaning of this record and believe that Harihara had turned into a lion. Historians glorify Tipu Sultan as ‘Tiger of Mysore’, but we know that Tipu was a human.

Was it possible for Rama to undertake such a hazardous expedition?

In the battle of ten kings, Sudasa who was anterior to Rama by eighteen generation defeated the Anu’s and conquered their territory. This led the Anu’s to migrate to Afghanistan and beyond as far as West Asia. If the Anu’s could have migrated towards Afghanistan several centuries prior to Rama, the latter travelling towards south India and finally to Lanka would not have be that difficult. Moreover the area which Rama traversed was dotted with the ashramas of sages who obliged him with food and lodging. Also he was guided by the Vanaras whose king Sugriva was indebted to Rama for helping him get the throne from his brother Vali. Even during the time of the Mauryas and Guptas, communication as we now conceive had not developed. But that did not prevent Chandragupta Maurya to come to Sravanabelagola in Karnataka or Samudra Gupta to launch an expedition against several kingdoms of south India.

Today there is an urgent need for Indian historians to critically examine the text Ramayana and identify the interpolations containing fanciful and loathsome accounts (for example, Rama killing Shambuka, a Sudra for performing penance,¹⁹ abandoning pregnant Seeta,²⁰ and Valmiki depicted as a brigand,²¹). It is by citing these interpolated accounts, the Macaulay, Marxist and Mullah combination are causing fissure in the Hindu society and creating bad blood amongst its communities. The orthodox amongst the Hindus may object to some of the hypothesis we may arrive. Years of foreign domination has made the Hindus develop an inferiority complex and hence clinging to myths may offer solace to their hurt pride. But as historian R.G.Collingwood has said a historian must examine the past with a careful eye, even if it means exploding cherished myths.²²

References

1. D.C.Sircar, Problems of the Ramayana, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad,1979, p.19

2. Ibid, p.4

3. S.Srinivas- Need to Set Right Historical Fallacies, QJMS, VOL. 105, No. 1, pp:1-12.

4. D.C.Sircar, Op.cit, pp:2,4,5

5. F.E.Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Oxford University Press, London, 1922, p.175 (Pargiter has hypothesized an acceptable Yuga theory according to which the Sathya or Krita yuga ended with the destruction of the Haihayas by Rama Jamadagni (Parashurama). The Treta yuga began approximately with Sagara and ended with Rama Dasharata’s destruction of the Rakshasas (Ravana). The Dvapara yuga began with the coronation of Rama at Ayodhya and ended with the Mahabharatha war, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. p.177)

6. 40 years X 29 generations = 1160 + 2449, the date of Mahabharatha War = 3609, being the date of Rama. According to D.R.Mankad the Puranas computed the number of kings of a dynasty on the basis of units of 40 years or caturyugas Puranic Chronology, pp:38,39

7. D.C.Sircar, Op.cit, p.3

8. Vettam Mani, Puranic Encyclopaedia, Motilal Banarsidass, 1975, p.641

9. T.K.Ramachandra Iyer, A Short History of Sanskrit Literature, R.S.Vadhyar & Sons, Palghat, 2002, pp:49,50

10. Vettam Mani, Op.cit, p.822

11. M.Krishnamachariar, History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, TTD Press, Madras, 1937, pp:3-5

12. V.Gopala Iyengar, A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, Thanjavur, 1965, p.10

13. M.Krishnamachariar, Op.cit, p.13

14. F.E.Pargiter, Op.cit, p.290

15. Ibid, p.185

16. B.V.Kamesvara Aiyar- Valmiki’s Ramayana and the Western Critics, QJMS, Vol XVI, April 1926, No.4, p.248

17. D.C.Sircar, Op.cit, pp: 20,21

18. M.Krishnamachariar, Op.cit, p.9

19. Vettam Mani, Op.cit, p.639

20. Ibid,

21. Ibid, p.822

22. Margaret MacMillan, Dangerous Games- The Uses and abuses of History, The Modern Library, New York, p.43

Kali the Sinner and Kalki the Savior

 The concept of Yuga and Avatara

The terms Kalpa, Manvantara and Yuga were used by the ancient Hindus to measure time. Accordingly, one Kalpa consisted of 14 Manvantaras and one Manvantara consisted of 71 Mahayugas and one Mahayuga consisted of four Yugas (ages) namely Krita or Sathya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga and Kali or Tisya Yuga.

The doctrine of the avataras of Vishnu is one of the most firmly established tenets of Hinduism. In the Bhagavad Gita (IV:7:8), Sri Krishna says that whenever there is decline of virtue and an insurrection of vice and injustice in the world, he will appear from age (yuga) to age for the preservation of the just, the destruction of the wicked and the establishment of virtue.

In Vishnu Purana it is said that Lord Vishnu appears in the form of Kapila and preaches paramajnana in the Krita yuga (period) and in Treta yuga, he assumes the form of an emperor and destroys the wicked people. In Dvapara yuga, he assumes the form of Vyasa and divides the Vedas into four sections and at the end of Kali yuga, he assumes the form of Kalki and restores the vicious to the path of righteousness.

Kali the sinner

The present age is the age of Kali, the sin god who lords over the world. Kali was the 15^th son of Kashyapa and after Sri Krishna’s departure to Vaikunta, Kali began to extend his power and influence and religious and moral decline advances rapidly. Sage Markandeya had prophesied about the happenings in Kaliyuga thus: In Kaliyuga all people will be dishonest and their life expectancy will come down. Righteous persons will decrease and sinners will increase. Brahmins would do duties of Shudras and Shudras will become prosperous, Kings will be sinners and merchants will cheat. Rainfall will be less and everywhere there will be murders.

Agni Purana says that in Kaliyuga all people will lose their faith in god and become irreligious. There will be an inter mixture of castes and people will become thieves and evil doers. Barbarians under the guise of rulers will harass the people. At last Vishnu will appear as Kalki, destroy the barbarians and reestablish all those pure customs and morals which are based upon the due observance of the duties prescribed to the castes and the four orders. Thereafter Hari will return to heaven; and the Sathya yuga then again returning, will restore to the world purity, virtue and piety.

Kalki the savior

All Puranas mentioning the various avataras of Vishnu end with Kalki. In this avatara Vishnu will incarnate as Kalki towards the end of Kaliyuga and come riding a white horse, with a drawn sword to destroy the wicked. Kalki was (or will be) born in a village Shambhalagrama to a Brahmin couple, Vishnuyashas and Sumati. He was married to Padmavathi and had two sons, Jaya and Vijaya. Kalki was a military hero and commanded a large army by which he defeated the Mlechchas and the Bauddhas; conquered kingdoms and restored the varnashrama dharma. (About Kalki’s expedition against the Bauddhas, H.C.Norman opines that it may seem strange to find an avatara of Vishnu marching to subdue those who have been converted by Vishnu himself as Buddha).

Inconsistent statements about Kalki

According to the Puranas, Vishnu will be incarnated as Kalki/Kalkin in a village Shambhala and will destroy all Mlechhas, Shudra kings and heretics and will establish dharma, so that Krita age will then be ushered. While the Vayu Purana (58.75-90) and Matsya Purana (144. 50-64) state that it will be Pramati Bhargava who will be the avatara of Vishnu, Vayu Purana (98.104,110) and (99.396-7), Vanaparva (190. 93-97) of Mahabharata and Bhagavata Purana (X.2.16-23) state that Kalkin will become a universal emperor (Chakravartin) of dharmavijayin type and will start the Krita age. In some Puranas, he is referred as Kalki and in some as Kalkin. In some Puranas, he is said to be the son of a Brahmin Vishnu Yashas and in others he is himself styled as Vishnu Yashas. In some texts he is said to have already flourished and in some to incarnate in future.

Kalki identified with historical personalities

While Hindu sources depict Kalki as a savior, Jain sources depict Kalki as a persecutor of Jains. Based on these Jain sources several historians have tried to identify Kalki with historical personalities. K.P.Jayaswal identifies Kalki with Yashodharman, the famous ruler of Malwa while K.B.Pathak identifies Kalkiraja with Mihirkula, the Huna ruler. According to D.R.Mankad, the Kalki referred by Jaina sources is different from the Kalki referred in the Puranas and he identifies Kalki mentioned in Jain works with Pushyamitra Sunga. But H.B.Bhide after critically examining the works of the Jaina authors who have referred to one Kalki or Kalkiraja says that there is absolutely no evidence in their works (which he claims as not trustworthy from the point of view of history) to identify Kalkiraja either with Yashodharman or Mihirkula.

Kalki defeated Sishunaga?

According to D.R.Mankad, Kalki lived in 1986 B.C., and was born in the dominion of Vishakhayupa of the Pradyota dynasty ruling from Avanti. It is said that the latter came to pay his homage to Kalki as soon as he was born. In the view of D.R.Mankad, Kalki was like Chanukya, a practical politician and an accomplished warrior who gathered all the prominent rulers of the day (the rulers of Kashi, Vaishali, Avanti, etc., who had long standing grudge against Magadha), into a confederacy and dealt a crushing defeat to the Magadha king Sishunaga.

Kalki Purana

The Kalki Purana is one of the late Upapurana and it claims to be a continuation of the Bhagavata Purana and to deal with future events and is a purely Vaishnava work. It describes the deeds of Vishnu to be performed at the close of the Kali Yuga when he will be born as Kalki. According to R.C.Hazra, as all the manuscripts of Kalki Purana are in Bengali scripts, this Purana was written in Bengal and is probably a 18^th century A.D. work.

Iconography of Kalki

The image of Kalki, according to Vaikhanasagama should have the face of a horse and the body of a man with four hands carrying respectively, the shankha, the chakra, the khadga and the khetaka and should possess a terrific look. According to Agni Purana, Kalki should carry the dhanus and the bana and should ride on a horse.

Development of the concept of Kalkin

According to P.V.Kane it is probable that the dismal accounts of Kaliyuga were put forth in the first centuries of the Christian era when the ancient varnashrama dharma had suffered a great set-back owning to the ascendancy of Buddhism and Jainism and the invasion of foreigners like the Shakas and the Hunas. When Yashodharman defeated the great Huna invader Mihirakula, people believed that the dark ages were at an end and that an era of perfect dharma was at hand. Passages in a prophetic vein were added about the time of Yashodharman to those already existing about the decline of dharma in Kaliyuga. This necessitated that all passages about Kalkin in any work whatever, were put in later than about 530 A.D.

According to Sunil Kumar Singh, the descriptions of the Kali age in the Puranas should be analysed as symptoms of a changing society. The death of an old order, wherein the social relationships weighed heavily in favour of the Brahmins, was a matter of great concern as it inaugurated the beginning of a phase of uncertainty. It was this fear psychosis and a grave concern for the uncertain future that finds full expression in the Kaliyuga descriptions of the Mahabharata and the Puranas.

It can be presumed that the development of the concept of the arrival of Kalkin was due to the yearning of the conservative elements to reestablish their hegemony over the society.

Reference

• Vettam Mani- Puranic Encyclopedia, Motilal Banarsidass, 1975

• P.V.Kane – History of Dharmashastra, Vol 5, Part I, BORI, Poona, 1958

• P.V.Kane – History of Dharmashastra, Vol 5 Part II, BORI, Poona, 1962

• P.V.Kane – History of Dharmashastra, Vol 3, second edition,BORI, Poona, 1973

• D.R.Mankad – Puranic Chronology, Gangajala Prakashan, Anand, Gujarat, 1951

• T.A.Gopinatha Rao – Elements of Hindu Iconography, vol -I, part I, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, 1985

• K.P.Jayaswal – The historical position of Kalki and his identification with Yasodharman, The Indian Antiquary, Vol XLVI, July 1917

• H.B.Bhide – Is Kalkiraja an historical Personage, The Indian Antiquary, Vol 48, July 1918

• K.B.Pathak – New light on the Gupta era and Mihirkula, The Indian Antiquary, Vol XLVII, January 1918

• H.C.Norman – The Kalki Avatara of Visnu, Section V – Religions of India and Iran, Transaction of the third International Congress for the History of Religions, Vol -II, Oxford Press.

• Sunil Kumar Singh – Studying the Kali Age: Problems of Perspective, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Volume 50, 1989

Outlines of Hindu temples

The art of a country reflects its social life. While the ancient Egyptian and Babylonian arts exhibit intense love of immortality, imperialistic aggression and love of splendour, the ancient Hindu art represents a fervid longing after spiritual perfection and the realization of the infinite in the finite. (V.Raghavendra Rao – South Indian Temples, QJMS, Vol -23, 1932-33, pp: 1,2)

The bhakti doctrine gave impetus for the erection of temples enshrining images. Temples arose as a place of worship for the ordinary mortals who were not equipped with mental faculties for reflection (meditation) or for the performance of austerities (Yoga) for the realization of the Absolute.

Earlier these temples were built out of perishable materials. With the commencement of the Gupta rule the practice of constructing temples with stones and bricks began in north India while temple building activities in south India commenced during the rule of the Pallavas which is supposed to have begun around 4^th century A.D.

Shilpa Shastras- Manual on Temple Architecture

The origin of the Indian temple architecture is attributed to a mythological person Vishwakarma. The Sutras, Puranas, Agamas contain references to temple architecture and sculpture. The Agamas and Silpa Shastras have laid down elaborate rules as to the place where temples are to be built, its layout, the kinds of images to be installed, the material with which such images are to be carved, the dimensions and proportions of various kinds of images and the various rituals to be carried daily after the consecration of the image in the temple. There are several books written exclusively on architecture of which Manasara, Mayamata, Kashyapa Shilpa and Agastya Sakaladhikara are works dedicated to dravida style of temple architecture. Works like Rupa Mandana, Prasada Mandana Vastu Shastra, Aparajita Prichchha and Samarangana Sutradhara are works dedicated to nagara style of temple architecture.

Types of Temples

In the beginning temples were carved out of boulders and also excavated in caves. Later structural temples were built. Examples of cave temples can be found in Badami in Karnataka state. Here of the four cave temples, one is dedicated to Shiva, two to Vishnu and one to a Jaina Thirthankara. These caves have three common features namely a pillared verandah, a columned hall and a small square garbhagriha cut deeply into the rock. The interior of these caves have wonderful images of Ardhanarishwara, Harihara, Mahishamardini, Narasimha, Varaha and Nataraja, to name a few.

The Pallava kings, Mahendravarman and Narasimhavarma initiated the technique of excavating stone temples out of solid rocks. The most famous of these ornate rock temples known as Rathas are located in Mahabalipuram in Tamilnadu. Another example of this type of temple is the monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora, constructed by the Rashtrakuta king, Krishna I. This temple is hewn out of a single solid rock about 100 feet high. The main body of the temple occupies a rectangle 150×100 feet and the temple has a garbhagriha, preceded by a hall and in front of the hall is a detached Nandimantapa. The tower over the garbhagriha is 95 feet in height. The walls of the temple are carved by beautiful sculptures.

Classification of Indian temples

Silpa Shastras classify three kinds of temples based on the position of the image installed. The temple having a standing image is known as Sthanaka, having a seated image is called Asana and that having a reclining is referred as Shayana.

Temples in India are mostly dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti (Mother Goddess). While Vishnu temples are built on the Pancharatra Agama principles, the Shiva temples follow the dictates of the Shaivagamas. These works also has rules with regards to the mode of worship of these gods. For instance Vishnu is worshipped with Tulasi leaves, white mud (Gopichandana), a flag with monkey insignia, Sudharshana discus accompanied with the music of the flute, while Shiva is worshipped with the berry of the Rudraksha tree, ashes, bilva leaves, drona flowers, trident and a flag with the bull insignia.

The popular forms of Vishnu worshipped in temples are Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama, Rama, Krishna, Balaji, Padhmanabha and Ranganatha. Another popular god associated in Vaishnava temples is Hanuman.

In Indian temples Shiva is generally worshipped in the form of the phallus (Linga) fixed on a pedestal. Ganesha and Subramanya or Skanda, his two children are also important deities worshipped in Shaivite temples.

Important goddess worshipped in Shakti temples are Lakshmi, Saraswathi, Kali, Durga, Bhavani, Gauri, Annapoorna, and Chamundi.

Important parts of a Hindu Temple

A Hindu temple is a symbol or rather a synthesis of various symbols. It is conceived in terms of a human being and the names of the various limbs of the human body are applied in architectural texts to different parts of the temple structure. Important organs of the temple are garbha-griha (sanctum) wherein the idol is enshrined; antarala, ardhamantapa or shukanasi (vestibule) which is in front of the garbha–griha and an assembly hall called mahamantapa, navaranga, sabhamantapa, etc. where the devotees stand. Inside the mahamantapa or just outside it will be placed the image of the deity’s chief vehicle, Nandi (bull) in Shiva temples and Garuda (bird) in Vishnu temples (essential in dravida temples and optional in nagara temples). Later a number of halls were added like utsava mantapa (for conducting various periodical festivals), kalyana mantapa (for conducting the ceremonial marriage festival of the god and goddess), nritya and sangeetha mantapa (where song and dance in praise of gods were rendered). After the mahamantapa there will be two raised platform one behind the other (essential in dravida temples and optional in nagara temples). In the first platform a flag-post or dhvaja stambha made of wood, stone or metal is fixed. And on the other platform called bali mantapa, bali or sacrifice offering is made. The whole place is surmounted by a high prakara wall whose gateway is surmounted by a tower called gopura, normally found in dravida style of temples.

Classification of Indian temple Styles

Indian temple architecture have been categorized into three main styles; namely Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. (The nagara style further divides itself into five major groups, located variously in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Upper India, Central India and Odisha).

Features of Nagara or Northern Style of temple architecture

• Temples belonging to the nagara style of architecture were constructed in the region between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas.

• These temples have sanctum which are square in plan.

• The sanctum (garbha-griha) is roofed by a tall curvilinear tower (sikhara), gradually inclining inwards and capped by an amalaka (a sphere shaped slab with ribs round the edge). This is crowned by a finial called kalasha. The shikaras have three, five or seven vertical projections and embellished with miniature chaitya window motifs (a projected horse shoe archway which is familiar to those found above the entrance of a chaitya.) and niches and in the corners of the shikara and small amalakas, to demarcate the division of the tower into compressed storeys.

• The outer walls of the sanctum have vertical projections called rathas. In the beginning there were three such projections on each side of the wall, (left, right and back) and these temples were known as triratha temples. In course of time the number of projections was increased to five (pancharatha), seven (saptharatha) and even nine (navaratha).

• In front of the garbha–griha there is a pavilion called sabha–mandapa over which there is a pyramid like roof with horizontal tiers.

• Normally nagara style of temples has a closed passage for circumambulation around the garbha–griha, the plan being known as sandhara.

• Another feature found in nagara style of architecture is the projection in the shikara over the roof of the antarala or ardhamantapa called as shukanasa or mahanisika.

• The Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh and the Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneshwar in Odisha are good examples of temples constructed in nagara style.

Features of Dravida or Southern Style of temple architecture

• Temples belonging to the dravida style of architecture were constructed in the region between the river Krishna and Kanyakumari.

• These temples have sanctum which are rectangular in plan

• The tower over the sanctum is called Vimana, which is of two types, kuta vimana and shala vimana. In kuta vimana the tower consists of storeys (talas) with diminishing width as it moves up and is crowned with a square, circular, hexagonal or octagonal structure with a single finial called stupi. Each storey contains a hara or string comprising a decorative kuta (a miniature square, circular or octagonal shrine with domical roof and a single finial), shala (a miniature shrine with a barrel-vault roof and a series of stupis on its ridge) and pinjara (a miniature apsidal shrine).

• In shala vimana the storeys are of the same pattern as in kuta vimana except for the crowning part which is a wagon-top, vault like or inverted boat like structure with rows of stupis on top along the ridge.

• Normally dravida style of temples the passage for circumambulation around the garbha–griha is open, the plan being known as nirandhara.

• Another important feature of dravida temples are the construction of towers over the entrance gateway called Gopura. The gateway is of granite or hard stone but the superstructure, gopura is of brick, wood and stucco. The gopura has successive tiers where life-size brick and stucco figures of men and gods are placed. Atop the gopura there is a shalashikara resembling an inverted boat like structure.

• In dravida temples we normally find a pushkarini (temple tank) which is absent or optional in north Indian temples.

• The Brihadisvara temples at Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram in Tamilnadu are good examples of temples built in dravida style.

Features of Vesara or Karnataka Style of temple architecture

• The vesara style of temple architecture emerged under the rule of Badami Chalukyas and reached its zenith during the time of the Hoysalas. The vesara type of temples can be seen around the region between the Vindhyas and the River Krishna, but mainly in the present state of Karnataka. Though this style is an amalgamation of the nagara and dravida style, it has its own unique features like-

• The plan of the temple is circular which later evolved into star-shaped.

• Temples were built over a raised platform, the surface of which is richly embellished.

• The outer walls of the temples are spaced out by means of pilasters.

• The tower (shikara) of the vesara style developed in various stages. During the early stage the vesara shikara was a blending of nagara and dravida elements and consisted of a dravida shikara with a shukanasi or the projection in front of the shikara over the antarala. Over a period of time we find the vesara tower displaying a variety of motifs and yaksha figures in its various tiers with a sculpture relating to the deity found in the sanctum being installed in the shukanasi. In the third stage, the vesara tower is found engraved with decorative motifs one above the other to give it a curvilinear tower like look with a low umbrella shaped finial at the apex.

• Another important feature of the vesara structure is the introduction of a parapet wall of haras along the edge of the mukha–mantapa and mahamandapa roof.

• From base to the top, vesara type of temples are richly carved with sculptures and friezes. Inside the temples also the door frames, pillars and ceiling are luxuriantly ornamented.

• The Mahadeva temple at Itagi and the Keshava temple at Somanathapura in Karnataka are good examples of temples built in vesara style.

Hindu Temples- A Centre for Socio-Economic and Cultural Activities

In India, temples were not merely places of worship, but also a centre for economic, social and cultural activities. Its construction used to provide employment to scores of people of various caste and creeds. First of all stone cutters used to cut blocks of raw granite from hills which was transported to the place where a temple was supposed to be raised. Then artisans used to chisel the stone and convert it into pillars, columns and idols. The building of the temple also required the assistance of masons and labourers. Once the temple was complete the idol was consecrated by Brahmin priests with full paraphernalia and attended by people of the place. People used to donate agricultural lands to the temple for its maintenance and the temple authorities used to raise crops with the help of farmers. The money which flowed to the temple in the form of donations and offering was used by the temple management to provide loans for farmers in need. The temple used to feed the devotees and hence was a large consumer of rice, pulses, ghee, jaggery, etc. The premises around the temple were used by people to sell wares like pots, edibles, flowers, incense sticks, coconuts, handicrafts and other items. All these activities provided livelihood to a large number of people. Temples had halls where artists like singers and dancers used to perform and entertain the audience. Religious discourses were organized at the temple premises and it used to provide moral lessons to the people and guide them in their daily lives. Temples also acted as mediators in local disputes and served as centers of education. During special fairs and ceremonies people of different caste had their role to play. For instance members belonging to barber community had the privilege to play the auspicious music in front of the deity; folk artists used this occasion to display their art. Thus the various activities of the temple brought about social solidarity and cohesion among different sections of the populations. In total, a large section of the population including farmers, priests, cooks, menial workers, artists, teachers, etc. were benefited by the temple.

Impact of Iconoclasm

With the advent of Islam into India, temple building activities in north India received a setback. The Delhi Sultans and their provincial governors followed the policy of demolishing temples and destroying images. Mahmud of Ghazni was deeply struck by the magnificence and beauty of the architecture of the Hindu temples at Mathura and described it in glowing terms in his letters to his amirs; but this did not diminish his iconoclastic zeal to destroy temples and images. At Somnath he broke the idol of the Somnath temple into four pieces and sent one of the pieces to be placed in front of the great mosque of Ghazni to be trodden under foot by the Muslims entering the mosque for prayers. The second piece was put in front of the gate of the Sultan’s royal palace to be walked upon and the rest of the pieces were sent to Mecca and Medina. Hasan Nizami, a Muslim historian writes that in all the cities and places the Muslims conquered, hardly an idol temple or religious sanctuary of the Hindus was left unmolested and not converted into Muslim institutions.

Sita Ram Goel in his work- Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, The Islamic Evidence remarks that starting with Al-Biladhuri who wrote in Arabic in the 2^nd half of the 9^th century and coming down to Syed Mahamud Ul Hasan who wrote in English in the fourth decade of 20^th century, we have cited from 80 histories spanning a period of more than 1200 years. These citations mentions 61 kings, 63 military commanders and 14 Sufis who destroyed Hindu temples in 154 localities, big and small spread from Khurasan in the west to Tripura in the east and from Transoxiana in the north to Tamilnadu in the south over a period of 1100 years. In most cases the destruction of temples were followed by erection of mosques, madrasas and khanqahs on the temple sites and frequently with temple materials. Hence eminent scholar Will Durant writes that we can never know from looking at India today, what grandeur and beauty she once possessed and we shall never be able to do justice to Indian art, for ignorance and fanaticism have destroyed its greatest achievement and have ruined the rest.

Bhargavas, the liberal/reformist Brahmins of Ancient India

The Bhargavas also called Bhrigus claim descent from the primaeval rishi Bhrigu. Bhrigu is one among the primaeval progenitors (Prajapatis) created by Brahma. While other Prajapatis are said to have issued from different limbs of Brahma, Bhrigu is represented as having sprung from Brahma’s heart, the noblest of the internal organs of man or god. The Bhargavas claim that their ancestors taught men to kindle fire by friction and thus they are the originators of the fire cult. The Bhargavas along with the Atreyas and the Kashyapas were the oldest priestly families of ancient India.

Bhrigu’s son was Dadhicha and his sons were Chyavana and Kavi. One of the descendants of Chyavana was Richika who married Satyavati, daughter of Gadhi or Gathi, the king of Kanyakubja and the sister of the famous sage Vishwamitra. Richika’s son was the illustrious Jamadagni, and his son was the famous Parashurama. Kavi’s son was Ushanas Shukra, who was a teacher of the Asuras. His daughter was married to king Yayati and gave birth to Yadu and Turvasa.

Composers of Vedic hymns

The hymns of the Rigveda are ascribed to about two dozen rishis belonging to the Bhargava family like Bhrigu, Chyavana, Gritsamada, Jamadagni, etc., and the word Bhrigu is mentioned 21 times in the Rigveda. The Bhrigus were also the founders of the Atharvanic religion along with the Angirases and the Atharvans.

Angirases, a branch of Bhrigus ?

V.G.Rahurkar opines that Bhrigus may be a section of the Angirases because Bhriguangiras is a seer of a number of hymns of the Atharvana Veda. But according to P.L.Bhargava, Angiras and Atharvan, both of which words are connected with the meaning of fire, were only epithets of the primaeval rishi Bhrigu who is regarded as the originator of the fire cult. Thus Dadhyanch (Dadhicha), Bhrigu’s son is called son of Atharvan in the Rigveda, an Angirasa in the Panchavamsha Brahmana and a Bhargava in the Puranas. Dadhicha’s son Chyavana is called both Bhargava and Angirasa in Shatapatha Brahmana. The fourth Veda is alternatively called Bhriguangiras, Atharvangiras or simply Atharvana Veda. A rishi of the Rigveda who belonged to this family called his ancestors by all the three names, Angirases, Atharvans and Bhrigus. In later times the word Atharvan fell into disuse and the word Angirasa was appropriated by a branch of this family, so that the parent stock retained only the name Bhargava.

Bhargavas feud with the Kshatriyas

The Bhargavas were a Brahmin clan perhaps more intimately associated with the ancient Kshatriyas by matrimonial ties than other Brahmin clans. On the other hand some of them seem to have come seriously into conflict with the Kshatriyas resulting in a blood feud.

The Bhargavas were priests of king Kartavirya of the Haihayas and he had bestowed great wealth on them. After his death, the princes of his family demanded it back but the Bhargavas refused to give it up. The princes tried to forcibly extract the wealth resulting in the Bhargavas to flee to other countries for safety. Later Kartavirya’s son Sahasrabahu Arjuna killed Jamadagni, who in turn was killed by Jamadagni’s son Parashurama who probably was helped by the rulers of Kanyakubj and Ayodhya with whom the Bhargavas had matrimonial alliance.

Bhargavas, the redactors of the Mahabharata

The theory – Bhrigusation of the Mahabharata was proposed by V.S.Sukthankar based on the following factors. First of all in the original saga of the Bharata, the Bhargavas are completely absent. Secondly, though not accorded any high status in the Vedic literature, they came all of a sudden into prominence in the Mahabharata with the highest number and frequency of the Bhrigu references and myths when compared to other Brahmanic families. Also the Bhargava heroes are magnified to the colossal proportion in the Mahabharata. The conclusion of V.S.Sukthankar is that the Bhrigus with ulterior motives deliberately grabbed a pre-existing text and engrafted the fabricated myths to boost their own social position and prestige.

P.K.Choudhary challenges this hypothesis and says that while the name of Bhrigu are referred 1500 times in the Mahabharata, that of the Angirasas are referred 3200 times and hence probably for this reason N.J.Shende had proposed that the Mahabharata was the creation of Bhrigu-Angiras redactors. V.G.Rahurkar also opines that the Bhrigus along with Angiras were responsible for the final redaction of the Mahabharata and making it a Dharmashastra, Nitishastra and an encyclopaedia of the Brahmanical tradition.

As scholars of repute

The Bhargava family was famous for its scholarly works on various subjects. Bhrigu is described as one of the eighteen authors on the art of building (Vastu Shilpa). Yaska, the author of Nirukta, Shaunaka, the author of Rigveda Pratishakhya and Anukramanis were Bhargavas. Their role in the composition of the Atharvana Veda was prominent. Vyasa’s disciple, Vaishampayana who was a teacher of Yajurveda is believed to have narrated the story of Bharata War to king Janamejaya, was also a Bhargava. So also was Valmiki, the author of Ramayana, Chanakya, the author of Arthasashtra and Banabhatta, the famous court poet of Harshavardhana.

Liberal and reformists

The Bhargavas were a very open minded group which accepted many outsiders in their fold happily. This was done either by fusion (through marriage alliance) or by imbibing their (outsiders) customs and manners, let it be to any limited extent. In the Vedic literature it is said that if someone has no particular gotramantra, then he should recite the Bhrigu mantra. The Bhrigus launched the concept of vrata, puja, dana and tirthas in the place of usual Vedic sacrifice.

The Bhrigus and Kaundinyas played a crucial role in the Brahmanization of several south Indian communities. Even today Parashurama is worshipped as an Avatara of Vishnu and his mother Renuka (called as Yellamma) is the Kuladevi (caste deity) in many parts of the country. It is interesting to know that Parashurama and Yellamma are more popular among the lower castes than the higher ones in certain regions.

Reference

• V.S.Sukthankar – Epic Studies VI The Bhrgus and the Bharata. A Text-Historical Study, ABORI, Vol -XVIII, 1936-37

• F.E.Pargiter – Ancient Indian Historical Traditions, Oxford University Press, London, 1922

• A.P.Karmakar – Dr. V.S.Suthankar’s theory of the Bhrguisation of the original Bharata and the light it throws on the Dravidian problem, ABORI, vol -20, No.1, October 1938

• P.K.Choudhary – Bhrguisation of the Mahabharata reconsidered, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol – 59, 1998

• V.G.Rahurkar – The Vedic Priest of the Fire Cult, Viveka Publications, Aligarh, 1982

• Purushottam Lal Bhargava – India in the Vedic Age, The Upper India Publishing House Ltd, Lucknow, 1956

• Vettam Mani- Puranic Encyclopedia, Motilal Banarsidass, 1975