Puranas, the synthesizer of Hindu sects and cults

The Puranas occupy a unique position in the sacred and secular literature of the Hindus, being regarded as next in importance only to the Vedas. Along with Mahabharatha they are considered as the fifth Veda, the Veda of the masses.¹ The Puranas serve as the key to the proper understanding of the various aspects of Hinduism- its beliefs, its modes of worship, its mythology, its festivals, feasts, and fasts, its sacred shrines and places of pilgrimage, its philosophy and ethics and its theology. The study of ancient Indian history, and culture particularly religion is impossible without a proper knowledge of the Puranas. As a matter of fact, it is virtually impossible to understand not only ancient Indian culture and life, but also the literature in modern Indian languages, as it largely draws upon the ideas and ideologies as embodied in the contents of the Puranas and the epics.²

Classification of the Puranas

There are eighteen major Puranas containing over four lakhs of slokas and are classified into three, those pertaining to Brahma (Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahmavaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana and Vamana Purana); those pertaining to Vishnu (Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Narada Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana and Varaha Purana) and those to Shiva (Vayu Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana, Matsya Purana and Kurma Purana).³

Genesis of the Puranas

Puranas have a hoary past. During the Vedic age there was a class of men called the Sutas and their job was to recite the glories of kings, history of royal families and life and career of great men gathered from eye witnesses and contemporary chroniclers.⁴ The Rig-Veda contains hymns of a narrative character and short legends in prose and verse called Gathas, Narasamsis, Itihasas, etc., occur in the Brahmana literature. In Vedic literature, Purana, Itihasa, Katha meant ordinarily an old tale, story, legend or incident and they were often interchangeable.⁵ As the Taittriya Aranyaka speaks of Itihasas and Puranas, it would not be unreasonable to suppose that in the later Vedic period at least some works called Purana existed and were studied and recited by those who were engaged in solemn sacrifices like the Ashwamedha.⁶ After the end of Mahabharatha War (2449 B.C or 3067 B.C.), Krishna Dvaipayana (also known as Veda Vyasa) compiled the tales, anecdotes, songs and lore that had come down from the ages into a text called Purana Samhita.⁷

The Purana Samhita is divided into four padas namely-

• Prakriya Pada– consisting of 300 shlokas which gives a description of the creation of the universe.

• Anusanga Pada– consisting of 1600 shlokas it narrates the history of the dynasties of the kings and rishis of the early Manavantaras.

• Upodghata Pada– consisting of 2600 shlokas it records the history of Vaivasvata Manvantara with information on ancient Indian tribes and the geneologies of dynasties of kings and rishis.

• Upasamhara Pada– consisting of 125 shlokas it gives an account of the destruction of the universe or pralaya.⁸

Vyasa taught this Purana Samhita to his disciple Suta Romaharsana or Lomaharsana, who in turn taught it to Atreya Sumati, Kashyapa Akrtavrana, Bharadvaja Agnivarcas, Vasishta Mitrayu, Savarni Somadatti and Susarman Shamshapayana. Of these six disciples, Kashyapa Akrtavrana, Savarni Somadatti and Susarman Shamshapayana composed three new Purana Samhitas and Suta’s own was the fourth and original one. These four are said to be basic Purana Samhitas.⁹

Characteristics of the Puranas

The great lexicographer Amara Simha, a contemporary of Kalidasa and who flourished before 6th century A.D. in his dictionary, Amarakosha, says that the Puranas have five characteristics like Sarga, Pratisarga, Vamsa, Manvantara and Vamsanucarita. Among these Sarga and Pratisarga are natural creation and renovation (cosmogony). Vamsa means history of sages and patriarchs. By Manvantara is meant the period of different Manus and Vamshanucarita means genealogy of kings.¹⁰

As Apastamba (600 B.C.-300 B.C.) mentions a Bhavisyat Purana and also Purana, it follows that before 500 B.C. several Purana existed and one of which was called the Bhavisyat and the Puranas then known contained the topics of Sarga, Pratisarga and Smriti matters.¹¹ Before 5^th century A.D. the number of Puranas was not large and that as the itihasa and Purana were lumped together as the 5^th Veda in the Upanishads, they both had certain matters in common. itihasa probably did not deal with creation, dissolution and manvantaras but contended itself with the dynasties of kings and with the deeds and legends about the heroes of the past. It appears originally the line of demarcation between Itihasa and Puranas was rather thin.¹²

Additions and Alterations in the Puranas

Over a period of time the Sutas who were the preservers and propagators of the Puranas sunk low in the social scale and foreign dynasties like that of Kanishka and the Huns did not patronize them. The Sutas probably became Buddhists as Buddhism with its Jataka stories gave to all persons following the profession of a bard sufficient scope for earning their livelihood.¹³ With the exit of the Sutas and as Sanskrit learning became peculiarly the business of Brahmins, the profession of studying Puranas was taken over by the Brahmins.¹⁴ But the Brahmins who studied the Vedas considered the Brahmins who were devoted to the study of the Puranas as having fallen away from the highest Brahmanic standard. Hence the Brahmins studying the Puranas magnified their own profession and extolled the Puranas by incorporating distinctly Brahmanic teachings and practice into the Puranas and compared them as sacred as Vedas.¹⁵

The surviving Puranas contain far more subjects than the five characteristics. Some Puranas barely touch these five and deal at great length with altogether different topics. Of all the Puranas extant, Vishnu Purana alone closely agrees with the definition of Purana having the five lakshanas though it also contains a good many other topics. On a modest calculation the four subjects of vrata, shraddha, tirtha and dana covers at least one hundred thousand slokas in the present 18 main Puranas. It is probable therefore that the present main Puranas are partial and gradually inflated representatives of an earlier group of Puranas (not necessarily 18 in number) that existed before Yajnavalkya (100 A.D.-300 A.D.) It is impossible to find out what these Puranas were or contained.¹⁶ But most of the extant Puranas were composed or completed in the period from the 5^th or 6^th century A.D. to the 9^th century A.D.¹⁷

Categorization and Contents of the Extant Puranas

Prof. Hara Prasad Shastri has classified the Puranas into several groups in accordance with the subject matter they contain. The encyclopedic group comprises Puranas like the Agni, Garuda and Narada. The next group which contains Puranas like Padma, Skanda and Bhavishya deals with tirthas (legends about holy places) and vratas (religious vows). Puranas like Linga, Vamana and Markandeya are grouped as sectarian and Puranas like Vayu, Brahmanda, Vishnu and Matsya are grouped as historical. The Puranas are also classified into ancient and later. The less, the number of additions other than the characteristics topics as defined by Amarakosha, the older the Puranas. Judging by this test we may pronounce Vayu, Vishnu, Matsya and Brahmanda as the ancient Puranas. From the Vaishnava point of view the Puranas are sub divided into sathvika, rajasika and tamasika, with the Puranas grouped under Vishnu being defined as sathvika, those under Brahma as rajasika and those grouped under Shiva as tamasika.¹⁸

It appears that up to the period of the Atharvaveda, the Puranas signified only tales of old and were allied with ithihasa, gathas, narasamsis, etc. During the Upanishad period chapters on cosmology along with the ages of the Manus were incorporated and later it came to have the characteristics as defined by Amarasimha in his Amarakosha.¹⁹ According to R.C.Hazra during 3^rd -4^th century A.D. topics on Hindu rites and customs which formed the subject matter of early smrti samhitas such as Manu and Yajnavalkya were incorporated in the Puranas and later from 600 A.D. onwards new topics regarding gifts, initiation, sacrifices, homa, tirthas, tithis, etc. not found in the Manu and Yajnavalkya smrti were incorporated in the Puranas.²⁰ According to S.P.L.Narasimhaswami the Vayu Purana is the oldest and most valuable of the Puranas while Puranas like Agni, Garuda, Bhavishya and the Brahmavairata has no historical matter in them and are Puranas only in name.²¹

Upa Puranas

There are eighteen minor Puranas (Upapuranas) besides the eighteen major ones. They are Sanatkumara, Narasimha, Naradiya, Siva, Durvasas, Kapila, Manava, Ushanas, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Saura, Aditya, Maheshvara, Devibhagavata, Vasistha, Visnudharmottara and Nilamata Purana.²² The Matsya Purana speaks of the Upapurana as sub-sections (Upabhedas) of the principal 18 Puranas while the Kurma Purana states that the Upapurana are the summaries or abridgments of the 18 principal Puranas made by sages after studying them.²³ The Upapuranas are more sectarian in character and has little historical value.²⁴ According to R.C.Hazra the Upapuranas were composed between 650-8—A.D. by the adherents of sects like Pancaratras, Pashupatas, etc for establishing the varnashramadharma and the authority of the Vedas among the masses.²⁵ But P.V.Kane is of the view that there is no positive objective evidence for placing any Upapurana except the Visnudharmottara before the 8th or 9th century A.D.²⁶

Sthala Puranas

A third class of Puranas exists and is known as Sthala Puranas. Each place of pilgrimage, each important shrine has its Sthala Purana alleged to have been the work of this or that rishi of ancient sanctity. Notwithstanding their pretentious claims, they are works of no authority and are rank forgeries.²⁷

Interpolation and Plagiarism in the Puranas

According to P.V.Kane, the extant Puranas and some of the Upapuranas have been so much tampered with and inflated by additions intended to bolster up particular forms of worship and particular tenets that great caution is required before one recognize them as genuine and reliable representatives for ascertaining the general state of Indian society and beliefs in ancient India.²⁸ According to Venkatachala Iyer, chapters of great number and great length are found plagiarized from one Purana and incorporated entire into another, verbatim. The reason for this was during the days when the Puranas were composed it was extremely difficult to bring out multiple copies and each locality prided itself on the possession of a particular book (Purana). Every endeavor was made to make each Purana self-contained as far as possible and this was done with the minimum of literary effort on the part of the author. Page after page was transcribed entirely from some other Purana with headlines and the names of the interlocutors mostly changed. The readers thus found his Purana as complete as possible. The author had the satisfaction of knowing that his literary larceny could not ordinarily be discovered in conditions which existed. It may appear strange and paradoxical that each one of the two Puranas should copy from the other. And yet it is true. This happens when a portion of Purana A is copied into Purana B, and some other portion of Purana B is copied into Purana A.²⁹

Cautious approach in using Puranas to reconstruct Indian History

According to A.D.Pusalkar the Puranas contains not only valuable historical material³⁰ but also information on various topics for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history. But in using it a modern historian should be able to disentangle legendary, fictitious or mythological material from the purely historical and cultural data.³¹ According to L.Hariyappa, in estimating the value of the Epics and the Puranas for a historical study, the view is generally held that sound conclusions are possible when only critical editions of the texts are made available. No definite period of composition can be fixed for these works, because, through centuries they have been subjected to additions and alterations with the result that they have grown in bulk. As it has proved in the case of Mahabharatha, it is an arduous task to bring out critical editions. All the same the necessity for them is beyond question, if a systematic insight into the currents and cross currents of our culture is to be gained.³²

Reference

1. A. D. Pusalkar, Studies in the Epics and Puranas,Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1955, p. xIiii

2. Vettam Mani- Puranic Encyclopedia, Motilal Banarsidass, 1975, vii

3. Ibid, pp: 617,618

4. Dhirendra Nath Pal, Sri Krishna, his Life and Teachings, The Research Home, Calcutta, 1923, pp: xxii,xxiii

5. Krishnamachariar, History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, TTD Press, Madras, 1937, p.2

6. P. V. Kane, History of Dharmashastras, vol V, part II, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1962, p.817

7. Vishnu Purana says that Vyasa compiled a Purana Samhita with Akhyana (what is seen with one’s own eyes), Upakhyana (what is heard from different persons), Gathas (songs about the ancestors) and Kalpasuddhi (treatment of shraddha ceremony) and gave it to his chief disciple, Lomaharsana, born in the Suta caste. (Krishnamachariar, Op.cit, pp: 73,74

8. S.P.L.Narasimhaswami- Aikshvaku Dynasty, Bharatiya Vidya, vol- IV, part II, May 1943, p.218

9. F. E. Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Oxford University Press, London, 1922, pp: 21-23

10. Vettam Mani- Op. cit,, p. 617

11. P. V. Kane, Op.cit, p.818

12. Ibid, p.840

13. Ibid, p.857

14. F. E. Pargiter, Op.cit, p.24

15. Ibid, 29

16. P. V. Kane, Op.cit, pp: 841,842

17. Ibid, pp: 854,855

18. A. D. Pusalkar, Op.cit,, pp: xIiii, xIix,I

19. ^{Ibid, p. Iiii}

20. ^{Ibid, p. 197}

21. S.P.L.Narasimhaswami- Op.cit, p. 219

22. Vettam Mani- Op.cit, p.619

23. P. V. Kane, Op.cit, p. 835

24. A. D. Pusalkar, Op.cit, p xIviii

25. Ibid, pp: 204-205

26. P. V.Kane, Op.cit, p.838

27. Venkatachala Iyer- The Puranas in QJMS vol XIII, April 1923, No.3, p.705

28. P. V. Kane, Op.cit, p.838

29. Venkatachala Iyer, Op.cit, pp:706,707

30. F. E. Pargiter, who worked as a judge in Calcutta High Court in his work, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition published in 1922, has made use of the Puranas to reconstruct the history of India from the earliest times down to the Mahabharatha war. He held the view that the Puranas did not support the theory of Aryan migration through North-West region of India. (A.D.Pusalkar, Studies in the Epics and Puranas, p.195)

31. Ibid, p. Ixviii

32. L. Hariyappa- Rig-Vedic Legends through the Ages, Poona, 1953, pp:127-128

Historical Facts behind the Myths in the Puranas and the Epics

The epics and the Puranas constitute an important source of the cultural history of India as they throw a flood of light on the various aspects of the life of the time.¹ To reconstruct the history of ancient India many information contained in the Puranas have to be critically analysed and poetic exaggerations and inventions which have been interpolated have to be purged.² Similarly, both Ramayana and Mahabharatha abound in numerous Brahmanical myths and legends which frequently interrupt the thread of the narrative.³ There are several stories or episodes in ancient Indian literature which are absurd if taken literally. It would certainly be unwise to reject the entire story on account of such apparent absurdities; and one should try to look deeper beyond the literal meaning to extract the wisdom of the ancient. For instance, the gods and goddesses having three, four and five heads and four, eight and sixteen hands are interpreted to be divine, immensely more powerful than man with the usual number of heads and hands.⁴ Similarly, some of the ancient nomadic tribes were called by the names of Sarpas (serpents) and Garudas (eagles) on account of their constant movement and migratory habits.⁵ Hence there is a need of reading a new meaning in the sacred tradition in order to protect it from the satire of critics.⁶ A critical study of the epics and Puranas shows four types of interpolations like

• Factual incidents which were blown out of proportions by fanciful writers of the subsequent period

• Hilarious stories inserted to amuse people

• Facts twisted to cover up customs considered as inappropriate at later times or blunders committed by famous historical characters and

• Stories inserted to establish the supremacy of Brahmanas

Through a critical analysis of incidents in the various types of interpolation mentioned above, we can find the actual historical facts. Some of the episodes which have been exaggerated in the first type of interpolation are –

In ancient India there was a continuous conflict between the forces of good and evil, the former representing by the Devas (Manavas) and the latter represented by the Asuras/Rakshasas.
Fact– Ancient India was inhabited by Devas (Manavas), Daityas, Danavas, Vanaras, Rakshasas, Yakshas, Nagas, Panis (Dasas), etc.⁷ All of them were human beings and claim descent from mythical Rishis. The Devas, Daityas, Danavas and Nagas were descendants from Rishi Marichi, while the Vanaras, Rakshasas and Yakshas were descendants from Rishi Pulastya. Further the Devas, Daityas, Danavas and Nagas were step brothers born to a common father Kashyapa. While the mother of Devas was Aditi, that of Daityas was Diti, that of Danavas was Danu and that of Nagas was Kadru. The Daityas and Danavas were called as Asuras by the Devas. Some of the prominent Asuras were Vrtra, Hiranyakashyapu, Prahalada and Bali. The Devas were advised by Brihaspati son of Rishi Angirasa and the Asuras by Shukracharya son of Rishi Bhrigu.⁸ The Nagas supported both the Devas and Asuras depending upon the relations with them. Sesha and Vasuki were the allies of Vishnu (who always supported the Devas). Some of the Naga girls married the Devas. There were many Naga Rishis like Arbudkadraveya Naga (Rig Veda 10/94), Jatakarna Erwata (Rig Veda 10/76) and Sarprajni (Rig Veda 10/182) who composed Vedic mantras.⁹ With regards to the Yakshas, as long as they supported the Devas in their fight against the Asuras, they were called Rakshak (protectors) by the Devas; but after the fall of the Asuras, when the Yakshas became the rival of the Devas, the Yakshas were called Rakshas and depicted as ugly. Some of the important Yakshas were Kubera and Ravana.¹⁰ Another important group living in ancient India was the Panis who were businessmen and were very wealthy. If the Panis lent money to the Devas, they (Panis) earned their favour otherwise they earned they wrath and were condemned as niggardly or miserly Asuras. As the moneyed class is generally physically weak, the Panis lost to the Devas in the power struggle. Being vanquished the Panis were assigned the status of Dasas.¹¹
As the practice of hero worship (ancestor worship) was prevailing in ancient India, personalities like Indra,Varuna and Agni became celestial beings after their death and were addressed as Devas (gods) by their descendants. People performed yajnas and invited them to their aid in times of distress and wants.¹² The composers of Rig Vedic hymns developed the cults of Indra, Agni and Soma.¹³ In the beginning the Rig Vedic hymns described the heroic deeds of their leader Indra and those who aided him in the conflict and were meant to be taken in the literal sense without any symbolism. When the conflict was over and when its authors (Manavas) sought to make a religion out of the events of the conflict, the process of myth making set in. The process of myth making is apparent though in a subtle manner in the Brahmanas which contain the detailed instructions and explanation for performing certain rites in a stated manner. Because Indra acted in a certain manner in a certain battle and was victorious, a sacrificer seeking to obtain the same result should perform the sacrifice in a symbolic manner.¹⁴ Thus, when the Manavas created a religion out of these events, they defied their leaders and arrogated to themselves the title of cosmic good. The opponents naturally became demons and represented the cosmic evil.¹⁵ As the Rakshasas had lost the battle, the ancient historians (Puranic writers) depicted them as wicked people and their ladies ugly. If they had married the sages they were shown as beautiful.¹⁶ Hence after the subjugation of various powerful races like Danavas, Daityas, Rakshasas and Nagas, even their names became scornful until at length they ceased to possess any ethnological force and turned into purely evil appellations. For instance, the word Asura became synonymous with the meaning demon and Pishacha, the original name of a tribe was turned to mean an impish goblin.¹⁷ Thus, the conflict between the Devas (Manavas) and Asuras/Panis/Rakshas was for power and kingship and nothing to do with ideology or morals.

Sathyavrata (Trishanku), son of Trayyaruna once carried away a bride from a Brahmin house on the eve of her marriage. This act of his resulted in his father expelling him from the palace. Sathyavrata spent his days roaming in the forest and helped the family of Vishwamitra who were in distress on account of the absence of Vishwamitra who had gone to do penance. Once hunger drove Sathyavrata to killed Nandini, a cow belonging to Vasishta and consumed its flesh. On knowing this incident Vasishta cursed him to become a Chandala (an outcaste) and called him Trishanku (trayi- three and shanku- sins) as he had committed three sins; incurring the wrath of his father, for abducting another man’s wife and for consuming cow’s flesh. Later Sathyavrata (Trishanku) was crowned the ruler of Ayodhya as he was the sole heir for Trayyaruna. After some times Sathyavrata (Trishanku) desired to go to heaven with his mortal body and approached Vasishta for help but the latter refused. Meanwhile Vishwamitra returned from penance and was told by his wife of the help rendered by Sathyavrata (Trishanku) in their difficult period. As gratitude Vishwamitra decided to fulfill the desire of Sathyavrata (Trishanku) to go to heaven with his mortal remains. When Sathyavrata (Trishanku) reached the heaven, the Devas refused to allow him and he began to fall back to earth. Vishwamitra then created a separate heaven for Trishanku (Trishanku swarga). As the Devas did not want a duplicate heaven, they agreed to allow Sathyavrata (Trishanku) into the heaven.¹⁸
Fact–Sathyavrata (Trishanku) was expelled by his father at the instance of his family priest (Vasishta) on account of some excesses. For twelve years Sathyavrata (Trishanku) wandered in the woods. While in the forest a severe famine occurred lasting for nine years. At that time Sathyavrata (Trishanku) supported the family of Vishwamitra who were starving as the latter had gone to perform penance. When Vishwamitra returned after his penance and heard about the help rendered by Sathyavrata (Trishanku), he intervened and saw that Sathyavrata (Trishanku) was installed as the king of Ayodhya. Probably this incident has been blown out of proportion by an interpolator by writing that Vishwamitra created a heaven called Trishanku.¹⁹ It is also likely that Vasishta the family preceptor with whom Trishanku was not in good terms had probably refused to perform Trishanku’s obsequies. This could have forced Trishanku’s son Harishchandra take the help of Vishwamitra to conduct his father’s last rites by paying a heavy fee (dakshina). These facts were blown out of proportion by the Puranic writers of the later period. Hence, we find all those fanciful stuff like Vishwamitra creating a heaven for Trishanku and later harassing his son Harishchandra for dakshina, etc.

Arjuna son of Haihaya ruler Kartavirya through a boon granted by his guru Dattatreya, son of sage Atri had 1000 arms (sahasra baahu). Once he visited the ashrama of sage Jamadagni where he and his followers were given a sumptuous feast. This was done through a divine cow, Susheela which Jamadagni possessed. Kartavirya Arjuna wanted the cow and sent Chandragupta to bring it. But Jamadagni refused to part with it and when Chandragupta tried to seize it, the cow suddenly vanished into the sky. Then Chandragupta tried to capture her calf. When Jamadagni intervened, he was beaten to death. Parashurama, son of Jamadagni then took a vow to go around the world 21 times and extirpate the Kshatriya kings. At the gate of Mahismati, he chopped off all the 1000 arms of Kartavirya Arjuna and beheaded him with his axe (parashu).²⁰
Fact– The story of the Bhrigu-Haihaya conflict may be interpreted in the following way. The Haihayas, scions of the Yadava family were great warriors and Bhrigus though belonging to the priestly class were great navigators, expert mariners and enterprising tradesman who controlled the trade between India and the western world, acting as intermediaries between Indian and the foreigners such as Assyrians. They had amassed great wealth by helping foreigners at the cost of indigenous population. Mahismati on the Narmada River was a great trading centre which was the focus of the routes running north and south and hence prized by ancient rulers. The Karkotaka Nagas has seized it from the Haihayas, but Kartavirya had recovered it. In order to secure the allegiance of the Bhrigus and to alienate them from the Nagas, Asuras, etc., Kartavirya bestowed wealth on them. Arjuna, son of Kartavirya was a great warrior who spread the Haihaya sway far and wide. He wanted the trade and commerce of India to be under the control of Indians and did not like the Bhrigus who were the agents of the foreigners. This was the main reason of the Bhrigu-Haihaya conflict. The Haihaya were in need of money for continuing their military operations and demanded the return of wealth from the Bhrigus and on their refusal pursued them and recovered the wealth buried by them. The Bhrigus ran helter-skelter for safety. In order to counter attack, the Bhrigus entered into matrimonial relationship with the ruling families. One Richika belonging to Bhrigu family approached Gadhi for his daughter and his son was Jamadagni and his grandson was Parashurama. Meanwhile the Haihayas made alliance with the Atris, rivals of the Bhrigus and sought the help of Dattatreya who helped Kartavirya Arjuna by building him a 1000 oared ship (or a fleet of 1000 ships). (The Atris were experts in ship building).²¹
Kartavirya Arjuna’s effort at getting control of the sea trade was an eyesore to the Bhrigus. Parashurama carried a ruthless war and entirely eliminated the Haihayas from the Naramada valley. He founded new cities and also colonized the region known as Aparanta on the west coast where Surparaka became a great trading center.²² Parashurama was the first colonizer of the tract (the present Konkan and Kerala region) which probably erupted out of the sea due to seismic disturbances.²³ Another rational interpretation for the epithet sahasra baahu which Kartavirya Arjuna possessed was that he was so called because he had the power and strength to wield 500 bows together or a single bow equal to them.²⁴

Sagara the predecessor of Bhagiratha had lost his 60,000 sons due to the wrath of sage Kapila who had reduced them to ashes in the fire which emanated from his eyes for disturbing his penance. The responsibility of performing the last rites of these 60,000 sons of Sagara fell upon Bhagiratha who did penance to bring River Ganga to earth. Ganga was pleased but said that the earth would not be able to withstand the impact of her powerful flow and this could take place only if Shiva agreed to allow her to flow into his matted hair. Bhagiratha then did penance for 1000 years on Shiva and being pleased Shiva agreed to allow Ganga to flow on his matted hair and from then gently to the earth. Then Bhagiratha performed the funeral rites of Sagara’s sons.²⁵
Fact– The story of Bhagiratha bringing the River Ganga to earth refers to directing the course of the Ganga from the Himalayas to the eastern regions to water and fertilize the tract. One of the greatest irrigational works in the world, it involved the efforts of four generation of the rulers of Ayodhya dynasty, namely, Sagara, Anshuman, Dilipa and Bhagiratha to construct a channel more than a thousand miles in length.²⁶ Bhagiratha perhaps was also the originator of the Ganga worship.²⁷

With regards to hilarious stories inserted in the Puranas and epics to amuse people we have incidents of Hanuman flying with a mountain in one hand, Bhishma laying upon a bed of arrows in the battle field awaiting death, Krishna’s son Sambha giving birth to an iron rod, etc.

During the battle between Rama and Ravana at Lanka, Indrajit, son of Ravana shot an arrow at Lakshmana who became unconscious. To revive him Jambavan told Hanuman to bring the herbal plant Mrtasanjivini from the Himalayas. Hanuman flew to the Himalayas but could not identify Mrtasanjivini from other herbal plants. Hence, he brought the whole mountain which grew these types of plants to Lanka. Jambavan then used the Mrtasanjivini to bring back Lakshmana back to sense.²⁸
Fact– Hanuman brought the Sanjivini herbs from the Dronachana hill (Mahodaya Mountain) which must be one of the three hills surrounding Lanka where herbal medicines are available.²⁹ Hanuman bringing the herbs on time and Lakshmana being brought back to senses thrilled the author of the epic to use metaphor to describe this incident and one should not take the explanation literally.

During the Mahabharata battle Bhishma fell down after Arjuna shot his arrow at him. Bhishma decided to stay alive until the sun came to uttarayana. Till then he lay on a bed of arrow and begged for a pillow to the kings. When he found that they were not paying any heed to his entreaties he asked Arjuna for a pillow and also begged for water from him. Later he taught Rajadharma to Yudhisthira resting on a bed of arrows.³⁰
Fact– A careful study of the critical edition of the Mahabharatha shows that Bhishma died on the tenth day of the battle or soon after. His laying on the bed of arrows simply means that he fell on the ground that was strewn with arrows. This was later mythologized to mean that he lay on a bed of arrows as he waited for the auspicious time of the year to die. The main purpose of this story was to keep Bhishma alive long enough to advise the new king Yudhisthira on rajadharma and introduce other didactic and sectarian material.³¹ Today in the Kali age if common people come across an injured animal, they show sympathy and try their best to get it medical facilities. Hence it is hard to believe that neither the Pandavas nor the Kauravas and also their respective allies lacked conscience and continued to fight when the great patriarch was lying down on a bed of arrows that too in the battle field.

With regards to the destruction of the Yadu race it is said that one day some of the Yadus to have fun with three great Rishis Vishwamitra, Kanva and Narada who had come to Dwaraka dressed Samba, one of the sons of Krishna in female attire and taking him to the Rishis asked them what child the supposed woman would give birth. The Rishis at once knew what mischievous pranks the impudent Yadus were playing. They grew fearfully angry and cursed them saying that an iron bar would be produced from the womb of the woman and this bar would destroy the entire Yadu race. The next day Samba delivered an iron rod. The Yadavas pounded it into powder and threw it into the sea. This powder was washed ashore and it grew up like arrow like grass. Krishna who was angry due to the death of Satyaki, Pradyumna and others plucked a handful of that grass and it transformed itself into an iron rod with which he beat to death those around him. Then other people plucked up the grass which turned into iron rod. They fought among themselves and all of them got killed.³²
Fact– Probably the story of Samba being pregnant was added by the interpolator to make the Mahabharatha amusing to the masses.³³ First of all, Samba’s existence itself appears fictitious as his mother is said to be Jambavanti, daughter of Jambavan, a bear. Can a man (Krishna) marry a she-bear and having contact with a man; can a she-bear deliver a human being? Being the son of Krishna, would Samba stoop to such low level as to get himself dressed as a pregnant woman and play such silly pranks? Perhaps Samba could have been the first and last man in the history of mankind to deliver that too an iron rod. Also, the interpolator has depicted Krishna as a mentally deranged for killing all those around him just because his son had died.

Sometimes stories in the Puranas and epics were interpolated to cover-up customs considered as inappropriate at later times and blunders committed by famous historical characters.

For instance, it is said that in the svayamvara of Draupadi, the Pandavas participated disguised as Brahmanas. There Arjuna was successful in hitting a target, thereby fulfilling the condition imposed for becoming eligible to marry Draupadi. After marrying her he returned home along with his brothers. When the Pandavas returned home, they cried at the door- ‘mother, we have got splendid alms today’. The mother replied whatever it be my sons, divide it among all of you. So that their mother’s right might not become false, they married the princess all together.³⁴
Fact– The Pandavas had passed their early life in Tibet. It was a prevalent custom of that country for the women to have a plurality of husbands. This custom prevailed among many Hindu castes in many parts of India. Over a period of time this custom disappeared and the writers of the epic could not bear the idea that such custom prevailed among their forefathers. Thus, several chapters in the Adi parva of Mahabharatha were interpolated and the story above is one of them.³⁵

Kunthi had served sage Durvasa and being pleased, the latter had taught her a mantra by which she could invoke any deva and get children from them. To test the efficiency of this mantra, she invoked the sun god with the mantra. Thereupon the sun god came and she was blessed with a son who later became Karna. As Kunthi had not been married she put the child in a box and floated it in the Yamuna. Kunthi later became the wife of Pandu, who also had another wife, Madri. Once while hunting, Pandu killed a sage Kindama, who was making love with his wife in the forest; both of the sage and his wife having assumed the forms of deer. The sage cursed Pandu that he would die the instance he touched his wives. Pandu became dejected as he would be heirless and asked his wives to become mothers through some noble persons but they declined. At that instance Kunthi told about the boon she had got from sage Durvasa and by uttering the mantra bore three sons, Yudhisthira, Bhima and Arjuna from Dharma, Vayu and Indra and Madri bore two sons, Nakula and Sahadeva from the Ashwini devas.³⁶
Fact– Karna was a Kanin (a child born to an unmarried damsel was called Kanin) born to Kunthi before her marriage. To hide her shame, she placed the child in a basket and floated it in the river. The interpolators have related an extraordinary story to save Kunthi’s honour.³⁷

Another type of interpolation in the Puranas and epics was stories intent to convey the superiority of Brahmanas. For instance, it is said During Rama’s rule infant’s death was very much on the increase in Ayodhya. It was believed that such deaths increased when shudras did tapas (penance). To find out if any shudra was engaged in penance, Rama flew over the Dandaka forest in his Pushpaka Vimana where he found a shudra called Shambuka performing penance hanging down from the branch of a tree with his head down. Rama killed him and Shambuka’s spirit got salvation.³⁸
Fact– This story is found in the Uttara Kanda, a later addition to Valmiki’s Ramayana which contained only five kandas. Nowhere in the sacred books of Hindus it has been mentioned that shudras should not do penance. Valmiki, a hunter had performed penance and became a sage. It is a clear case of interpolation to convey the masses that spiritual practices were only for the upper castes and if one transgresses this rule, he will have to face the consequences. Unfortunately, this story has tarnished the image of Rama.

When Yudhisthira performed the Rajasuya yajna, he invited kings and chiefs from across the country including Krishna to participate in the yajna. It is said that at the yajna Krishna with a desire of gaining the excellent fruits willingly took upon himself the task of washing the feet of Brahmins.³⁹
Fact– On the advice of Krishna, Yudhisthira performed the Rajasuya sacrifice only after defeating Jarasandha. In the said sacrifice, when the question arose as to who should be offered the Agra puja (first worship, where the honoured person is offered things like sandal paste, blade of grass, flowers, etc.), Bhishma said that as the sun shines among all luminous objects, so shines Krishna among all men present here. Therefore, Agra puja (first worship) should be first presented to Krishna.⁴⁰ These being the case it is impossible to believe that Krishna invited as a chief guest at a function would wash the feet of Brahmanas. In Bhagavad Gita, Krishna speaks of nishkama karma, that is action without desire, how come the same Krishna desire of anything. In fact, he had refused to ascend the throne after the death of Kamsa, in spite of his kinsmen plea. Moreover, would the Brahmins who had come to receive gifts (dana) dare to allow Krishna to wash their feet or would Bhishma allowed Krishna whom he considered as an incarnation of God to wash the feet of Brahmanas? This incident of washing the feet of Brahmanas is another instance of interpolation to show that even Gods worship Brahmins to gain merit.⁴¹

Indian scholars have untiringly bringing out the critical editions of our ancient texts containing historical information by rejecting absurd stories and incidents which have been inserted. For instance, Vyasa taking the help of Lord Ganesha as a scribe to write the Mahabharatha and Krishna clothing Draupadi when she was being disrobed by Dushshasana have been rejected as interpolations in the critical edition of the Mahabharatha.⁴²

Bibliography

1. A.D.Pusalker- The Epic and Puranas, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1955, p. xviii

2. J.P.Mittal- History of Ancient India (7300 B.C.-4250 B. C.) Vol-I, Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 2006, p.xix

3. A.D.Pusalker- Op.cit, p.xxxv

4. A.D.Pusalker- The New Style Puranas in Mahendra Kulasrestra- Edited, Culture India– A Compendium of Indian Philosophy, Religion, Arts, Literature and Society contributed by authorities in various areas, Lotus Press, New Delhi,2006, pp: 64,65

5. Abinas Chandra Das- Rig-Vedic India, R.Cambray & Co, Calcutta, 1927,148

6. A.D.Pusalker- The New Style Puranas, Op.cit, p. 65

7. R.K.Pruthi (Edited) – Vedic Civilization, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, 2004, p.91

8. Vettam Mani- Puranic Encyclopedia, Motilal Banarsidass, 1975, pp: 162,396,612,760

9. J.P.Mittal- Op.cit, p.44

10. Ibid, p.67

11. K.C.Singhal and Roshan Gupta- The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period, a New Interpretation, Atlantic Publishers and distributors, New Delhi, 2003, pp:142,143

12. Ibid, pp: 2,3

13. Thaneswar Sarmah- The Bharadvajas in Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, New Delhi, 1991, p.xxiii

14. Malati J Shendge, The Civilized Demons: The Harappans in Rigveda, Abhinav Publication, New Delhi, 1977, p.8

15. Ibid, pp:3,4

16. J.P.Mittal- Op.cit, p.249

17. F. E.Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Oxford University Press, London, 1922, p.290

18. Vettam Mani- Op.cit, pp: 794,795

19. R.K.Pruthi- Op.cit,p.59

20. Vettam Mani- Op.cit, pp: 393,394

21. A.D.Pusalker- The New Style Puranas, Op.cit, pp:70,72; R.K.Pruthi- Op.cit, pp: 55,56

22. Ibid

23. A.D.Pusalker- The New Style Puranas, Op.cit, p. 67

24. Ratilal N Mehta- Pre Buddhist-India, Examiner Press, Bombay, 1939, p.11

25. Vettam Mani- Op.cit, p. 114

26. A.D.Pusalker- The New Style Puranas, Op.cit, pp:65,66

27. R.K.Pruthi- Op.cit,p.62

28. Vettam Mani- Op.cit, p. 638

29. J.P.Mittal- Op.cit, p.244

30. Vettam Mani- Op.cit, pp: 137,138

31. S.Rajaram- Mahabharata Date: A Word of Caution, QJMS, vol- XCIV, 1958, No:1-2, 2003, pp:56,57

32. Dhirendra Nath Pal- Sri Krishna- His Life and Teachings, Published by C.C.Basak, The Research Home, Calcutta, 1923, p. 448; Vettam Mani- Op.cit, p.428

33. Dhirendra Nath Pal, Op.cit, p.448

34. Ibid, p.124

35. Ibid, pp: 123,124

36. Vettam Mani- Op.cit, pp: 442, 443

37. Dhirendra Nath Pal, Op.cit, p.112

38. Vettam Mani- Op.cit, pp: 639,678

39. Dhirendra Nath Pal, Op.cit, p.171

40. Ibid, pp: 172,173

41. Bankim Chandra Chaterjee treats the episode of Krishna washing the feet of the Brahmanas at the Rajasuya ceremony as an interpolation. (Bimanbehari Majumdar- Krishna in History and Legend, University of Calcutta, 1969, p.254)

42. A.D.Pusalker- Op.cit, pp: xxiii, 97

Historicity of Ramayana

Sri Rama, the hero of Ramayana was an ideal son, ideal husband and ideal friend. He was known for his valour, sense of fair play and justice. His rule was so perfect that the term Ramarajya is synonymous for ideal governance. If we are to agree with the statement of Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle that History is the biography of great men, then bereft of Rama and Ramayana, ancient Indian history would be incomplete. But as of now history books in India refer to Ramayana as an epic and do not ascribe historicity to it. While a foreign scholar like Pargiter says that there is historical truth in the story of Rama’s exile and invasion of Ceylon,¹ an Indian scholar like D.C.Sircar says that Valmiki’s story is an imaginary treatment of a legend supposed to represent an earlier age.¹ In these circumstances is it possible to establish the historicity of Rama and Ramayana?

First we shall make a list of probable issues which causes skeptics to question the historicity of Ramayana including that raised by D.C.Sircar in his work Problems in Ramayana. They are

• Fanciful date assigned to Rama and Ramayana

• Antecedents of Valmiki

• Was Rama an incarnation of Vishnu?

• Is not Rama abandoning pregnant Seeta a blemish on his character?

• If Vanaras were monkeys how could have Rama communicated with them?

• The absurdity of Ravana flying the Aerial Car (Pushpaka Vimana)

• Did Ravana had ten heads and Hanuman flied with a mountain peak?

• Was it possible for Rama to undertake such a hazardous expedition?

The colonial and Marxist historians by propagating the Aryan Invasion Theory have messed up ancient Indian chronology so much so that it was difficult to place the chronology of historical figures like Rama and Krishna. But thanks to the painstaking efforts of objective historians, today we know the ulterior motives of the above school of historians in dishing out such theories and also aware of the fact that the so called Harappan civilization is nothing but the urban representation of the Vedic civilization and it correspond to the period when the Upanishad were composed. Just like the progress in the field of astronomy was possible after the geocentric theory of universe was discarded, similarly chronology for persons and events associated with ancient Indian history can be fixed if the Aryan Invasion Theory is discarded.³ Hence for establishing the historicity of Rama and Ramayana we have to

• Abandon the Aryan Invasion Theory.

• Critically examine the text of Ramayana and

• Interpret fanciful incidents in Ramayana based on reasoning.

Mahabharatha War, Sheet Anchor for fixing ancient Indian Chronology

Date of Rama

According to traditional accounts Rama is assigned to the 2nd of the four yugas, viz, Sathya or Krita yuga (which lasted for 17,28,000 years), Treta yuga (which lasted for 12,96,000 years), Dvapara yuga (which lasted for 8,64,000 years) and Kali yuga (which will last for 4,32,000 years). As Kali yuga of the present cycle started in 3102 B.C., this places Rama time in the Treta yuga nearly 8, 69,000 years, many millennia before the development of human civilization on the earth. Also Rama is said to have ruled for 16,000 years. Hence D.C.Sircar questions the absurd antiquity to which Rama is assigned by the Indian tradition. Yes Sircar is right in arriving at this conclusion; but he himself says that the Yuga division was fabricated by the astronomers about the age of the Imperial Guptas.⁴ Moreover as Pargiter has mentioned the theory of the four ages did not apply to the whole world and it was declared repeatedly that these ages prevailed in India.⁵ Hence we need not take the date assigned to Rama by Indian traditions seriously. But how to arrive at the date of Rama?

The date of Rama can be fixed if we accept one of the few proposed dates of the occurrence of Mahabharatha war (either 3067 B.C. or 2449 B.C.) In the list of Ikshavaku kings given in the Vayu Purana, Rama’s number is 65. He lived 29 generations before Bhrihadbala who participated in the Mahabharatha war. If we take 2449 B.C. as the date of Mahabharatha war and allot 40 years for each king then the date of Rama can be fixed at 3609 B.C.⁶ This date correspond very nearly to the late Veda-Brahmana period. (Navaratna Rajaram (From Saraswati River to the Indus Script- Changing Perceptions, p.73)

Date of Ramayana

Scholars like R.G.Bhandarkar and D.R.Bhandarkar presume that the Ramayana was composed not earlier than 4th century B.C.⁷ while V.Gopala Iyengar in his work- A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature (p.14) writes that the original portion of the Ramayana was composed clearly before 500 B.C., whereas additions (which now scholars have identified as Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda) must have been made some time about 200 B.C. This does not mean that Valmiki composed Ramayana in 5^th or 4^th century B.C. Valmiki was a contemporary of Rama and the latter had visited the former’s ashram during his life in exile in the forest.⁸ Hence Ramayana was composed during the time when Rama lived and the original Valmiki’s Ramayana consisted of book II- VI. The Ramayana composed by Valmiki was passed on from one generation to another orally just like other ancient Indian works like the Vedas and Upanishads. The Mahabharatha reproduces the story of Rama while the Ramayana makes no mention at all of the former. This makes sure that the Ramayana must have been famous before Mahabharatha took a definite shape. As the poem grew very popular interpolations were made purely for professional needs. Hence the dating for the composition of Ramayana by modern scholars should be understood in the sense that over the centuries some portions of the story had gone into oblivion and the scholars of that period (5^th or 4^th century B.C.) were able to retrieve those portions and codified the Ramayana.

Critical examination of Ramayana

Antecedents of Valmiki

Prof. Jacobi after a careful study of the Ramayana has concluded that the original Ramayana consisted of only five Kandas, namely Ayodhya, Aranya, Kishkinda, Sundara and Yuddha. The argument of Jacobi is based on the following grounds.

• The logical conclusion of the plot is found in the coronation of Rama found in the Yuddha kanda. The story is complete with Ramapattabhisheka and even now the usual recital of Ramayana stops with it.

• Indian poets usually conclude their works with a happy incident. Rama’s coronation described at the end of the Yuddha kanda provides a happy and natural ending to the work. The seventh book, Uttara kanda ends with the disappearance of all the main characters which is generally regarded as unhappy and inauspicious.

• There are statements in the Bala Kanda which contradicts those in the others- for example Rama tells Shurpanaka in the Aranya Kanda that Lakshmana is not married while in Bala Kanda describes Lakshmana as married.

• In the Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda Rama is spoken as an incarnation of Vishnu, while in the other five Kandas he has been treated only as human being.

• In the 1^st and 7^th books (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda), there are many stories which have no direct bearing on the main plot of Ramayana while in the books two-six a single connected story is narrative in the kavya style. The stories of Rishyasringa, Vishwamitra, Gangavatarana, etc. narrated in Bala Kanda have no connection with the story of Rama and the Uttara Kanda which contains biographical notes on the characters of the original story can only be treated as a supplement added at a later stage.⁹

With regards to the antecedents of Valmiki we have very scanty information and have to depend mainly on hearsay for the life history of this sage.¹⁰ It is in the interpolated work, book I (Bala Kanda) that we have the story of Valmiki. Even this account is taken from another work Adhyatma Ramayana which is an extract from the Brahmanda Purana. In this Valmiki describes his past history of how by birth he was a Brahmin and unable to control his passion had many children from a Sudra woman and to feed them resorted to robbery. Once confronting a muni (sage) the latter asked Valmiki whether his wife and children consent to Valmiki’s participation in the numerous sins and when Valmiki got a reply, ‘no’ from them, he turned a new leaf, meditated upon the name of Rama and later composed Ramayana.¹¹ As Valmiki himself appears as a character, he could not have composed them.¹² Then who was Valmiki? What is background? For this we can postulate that he was a poet whose earlier occupation must have been that of a hunter. This should not be a surprise as during that age an individual worth was not based on his occupation. To give an example we have the story of Dharma Vyadha in Mahabharatha whose profession was that of a butcher and who taught the essence of Vedanta to a Brahmin. In ancient India people followed the ashrama dharma and during the gruhasthashrama stage Valmiki followed the profession of a hunter and during the vanaprasta and sanyasa stage, left for the forest, build an ashrama (Rama during his exile had visited his ashrama) and later composed Ramayana as he knew about Rama and his exploits.

Was Rama an incarnation of Vishnu?

In Ramayana Rama is depicted as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu for which R.C.Dutt argues that Vishnu had not risen to prominence at the time at which Ramayana took place and it was Indira who was the chief god in the epic age.¹³ But it should be remembered that Valmiki’s Ramayana depicts Rama as a human being and not as an avatarapurusha. It is only in the Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda, both of which have been identified as interpolation to the original Ramayana that Rama is spoken as an incarnation of Vishnu. Hence in the original Valmiki’s Ramayana consisting of book II- VI, Rama is treated as a hero and not as an incarnation.

Is not Rama abandoning pregnant Seeta a blemish on his character?

The story of Rama abandoning pregnant Seeta is not found in the Ramayana written by Valmiki. This story is mentioned in the Uttara Kanda added to the original Ramayana centuries later.

Interpreting fanciful incidents based on Reasoning

If Vanaras were monkeys how could have Rama communicated with them?

The name Vanaras does not have to mean monkeys just like Nagas does not mean snakes. According to Pargiter many powerful races such as Danavas, Daityas, Rakshasas, Nagas were reduced to subjugation and later the names of these races become scornful until at length they ceased to possess any ethnological force and turned into purely evil appellations. For instance the word asura become synonymous with the meaning demon and pishacha the original name of a tribe was turned to mean an impish goblin.¹⁴ The Vanaras along with the Rakshasas, Kinnaras and Yakshas are said to be the progenitors of rishi Pulastya, one among the eight mythical rishis from whom the Brahmin families claim descent.¹⁵ The word Vanar originally meant ‘the dweller of the Vana (forest)’ (Nobin Chandra Das- A Note on the Antiquity of the Ramayana, 1899). Therefore the rakshasas were human beings and so also were the Nagas and the Vanaras. It may be noted that the hero of Mahabharatha Arjuna had married a Naga princess, Ulupi and his brother Bhima had married a rakshasa woman Hidambi. As regards to the language, the Ramayana itself (Sundara Kanda) speaks of two varieties of Sanskrit which were in vogue at that time; one manushi Samskrita, the popular dialect and the Samskrita dvijatiriva, the language spoken by the cultured Brahmins, the shishtas. Hanuman the hero of the Vanaras was a cultured linguist and could speak in both varieties.¹⁶

The absurdity of Aerial Car, Pushpaka Vimana

D.C.Sircar questions the epic narrators’ idea of Ravana carrying away Seeta in an aerial car (Pushpaka Vimana) and the return of Rama from Lanka to Ayodhya by the same car. If flying cars were in use in ancient India, foreigners like Alexander’s historians and the Chinese and Arab travellers like Hiuen Tsang and Al biruni would have certainly mentioned them especially as they were unknown in their own countries.¹⁷ Sircar’s reasoning is quite appropriate. But why did Valmiki spoke about Pushpaka Vimana? We must remember that Valmiki was a poet and to indulge in imagination is every poet’s right. Valmiki may have used the word Pushpaka Vimana as a metaphor to describe the swift moving chariot used by Ravana to flee to Lanka after abducting Seeta. It was through this royal chariot that Rama returned back to Ayodhya from Lanka.

Communicated through Ramasetu

Then the question arises as how Seeta was abducted or rakshasas like Ravana and Surpanaka traversed between Lanka and Janasthana (south India). For this we have to hypothesize that through the bridge (Ramasetu) which existed between India and Lanka that the asuras including Shurpanaka came to India. In the Aranya kanda it is said that Ravana possessed a narrow strip of land along the coast of south India, while the rest of south India then known as Kishkinda was in the possession of Vali.^`18 By this we can presume that a bridge already existed for the rakshasas to communicate between India and Lanka. Ravana abducted Seeta and reached Lanka through this bridge. Hanuman came to Lanka through this bridge and after meeting Seeta returning back, destroyed some parts of the city. This event may have disturbed Ravana who thought that Rama may come to Lanka and had the bridge destroyed. (This is similar to what defeated armies do like destroying bridges, livestock and food when retreating so that the enemy’s progress is hindered). Rama with the help of Nala and the Vanaras rebuilt the bridge and as he was the victor in the war, the bridge was named after him as Ramsethu.

Ravana with ten heads and Hanuman flying with a mountain peak

No sane person is willing to believe that a person can possess ten heads (Ravana) or a person however strong he may be in physical strength can fly carrying a mountain (Hanuman). As mentioned earlier, Valmiki was a poet and used similes to describe certain awesome events. Even inscriptions which historians rely upon to construct the history of kings and dynasties, contains similes. For instance Harihara II, the Vijayanagara ruler is called in one of his records as ‘a lion to the scent elephant of the Andhra king.’ We cannot take the literary meaning of this record and believe that Harihara had turned into a lion. Historians glorify Tipu Sultan as ‘Tiger of Mysore’, but we know that Tipu was a human.

Was it possible for Rama to undertake such a hazardous expedition?

In the battle of ten kings, Sudasa who was anterior to Rama by eighteen generation defeated the Anu’s and conquered their territory. This led the Anu’s to migrate to Afghanistan and beyond as far as West Asia. If the Anu’s could have migrated towards Afghanistan several centuries prior to Rama, the latter travelling towards south India and finally to Lanka would not have be that difficult. Moreover the area which Rama traversed was dotted with the ashramas of sages who obliged him with food and lodging. Also he was guided by the Vanaras whose king Sugriva was indebted to Rama for helping him get the throne from his brother Vali. Even during the time of the Mauryas and Guptas, communication as we now conceive had not developed. But that did not prevent Chandragupta Maurya to come to Sravanabelagola in Karnataka or Samudra Gupta to launch an expedition against several kingdoms of south India.

Today there is an urgent need for Indian historians to critically examine the text Ramayana and identify the interpolations containing fanciful and loathsome accounts (for example, Rama killing Shambuka, a Sudra for performing penance,¹⁹ abandoning pregnant Seeta,²⁰ and Valmiki depicted as a brigand,²¹). It is by citing these interpolated accounts, the Macaulay, Marxist and Mullah combination are causing fissure in the Hindu society and creating bad blood amongst its communities. The orthodox amongst the Hindus may object to some of the hypothesis we may arrive. Years of foreign domination has made the Hindus develop an inferiority complex and hence clinging to myths may offer solace to their hurt pride. But as historian R.G.Collingwood has said a historian must examine the past with a careful eye, even if it means exploding cherished myths.²²

References

1. D.C.Sircar, Problems of the Ramayana, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad,1979, p.19

2. Ibid, p.4

3. S.Srinivas- Need to Set Right Historical Fallacies, QJMS, VOL. 105, No. 1, pp:1-12.

4. D.C.Sircar, Op.cit, pp:2,4,5

5. F.E.Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Oxford University Press, London, 1922, p.175 (Pargiter has hypothesized an acceptable Yuga theory according to which the Sathya or Krita yuga ended with the destruction of the Haihayas by Rama Jamadagni (Parashurama). The Treta yuga began approximately with Sagara and ended with Rama Dasharata’s destruction of the Rakshasas (Ravana). The Dvapara yuga began with the coronation of Rama at Ayodhya and ended with the Mahabharatha war, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. p.177)

6. 40 years X 29 generations = 1160 + 2449, the date of Mahabharatha War = 3609, being the date of Rama. According to D.R.Mankad the Puranas computed the number of kings of a dynasty on the basis of units of 40 years or caturyugas Puranic Chronology, pp:38,39

7. D.C.Sircar, Op.cit, p.3

8. Vettam Mani, Puranic Encyclopaedia, Motilal Banarsidass, 1975, p.641

9. T.K.Ramachandra Iyer, A Short History of Sanskrit Literature, R.S.Vadhyar & Sons, Palghat, 2002, pp:49,50

10. Vettam Mani, Op.cit, p.822

11. M.Krishnamachariar, History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, TTD Press, Madras, 1937, pp:3-5

12. V.Gopala Iyengar, A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, Thanjavur, 1965, p.10

13. M.Krishnamachariar, Op.cit, p.13

14. F.E.Pargiter, Op.cit, p.290

15. Ibid, p.185

16. B.V.Kamesvara Aiyar- Valmiki’s Ramayana and the Western Critics, QJMS, Vol XVI, April 1926, No.4, p.248

17. D.C.Sircar, Op.cit, pp: 20,21

18. M.Krishnamachariar, Op.cit, p.9

19. Vettam Mani, Op.cit, p.639

20. Ibid,

21. Ibid, p.822

22. Margaret MacMillan, Dangerous Games- The Uses and abuses of History, The Modern Library, New York, p.43