Tantra is a body of theories, techniques and rituals developed in India in antiquity which later spread to other parts of Asia. There are two fundamental aspects of tantra. The first aspect is its theory of creation which posits that the universe has no beginning and no end and that all its manifestations are merely the projections of divine energy of the creator. The second aspect of the tantra is the belief that the performance of tantric techniques and rituals facilitates access to this divine energy, enabling their practitioners to empower themselves as well as empower others associated with them in the guru-disciple relationship. Thus the knowledge and proper application of tantric techniques and rituals is believed to harness the creator’s cosmic energies to the promotion of the mundane as well as spiritual goals of their practitioners.1
Original Home of Tantra
Eastern India was the birth place of Tantric sadhana and from there it travelled to other parts of India and Nepal. According to Jayaratha (12th century A.D.) a commentator of Tantraloka of Abhinavagupta, Kaula Tantras are said to have issued from Kamarupa in Assam.2 Some eminent scholars including Winternitz think that Bengal was the cradle of Tantra based on the following facts-
Worship of Kali, the most prominent tantric deity is most widespread in Bengal.
A large number of Shakti Pitas (holy resorts of Shakti) are in Bengal. Kamakhya (in Assam) was a strong hold of Tantra.
A largest number of Tantric manuscripts have been found in Bengal and
It is believed that Tantra was introduced in Tibet and China from Bengal through Buddhism and Tantric sadhana in Nepal appears to have been influenced by Tantric devotees of Bengal.3
Meaning of Tantra
Tantra is a Sanskrit word meaning rule and regulation, system or administrative code. For example the word Shasana Tantra means a system of government. Taking in this light, Tantra would come to mean a branch of knowledge which will offer a systematic and scientific method by which the spiritual powers inherent in man can be brought out and human life may be blessed with a glimpse of reality and attain salvation. Tantra also stands for Shastra meaning a code which is meant to govern the activity of man in all their aspects.4 The expression Tantra is also a generic name applied to Aagama, Tantra and Samhita which are theological treatises discussing the codes of discipline and worship among different sects of religion along with their metaphysical and mystical points of view.5 Derived from the root ‘tan’ meaning ‘to spread’, in religious sense Tantra mean ‘the scripture by which knowledge is spread’.6
Contents of Tantra
The Tantras contain an amalgam of religion, philosophy, superstitious dogmas, rites, astronomy, astrology, medicine, prognostications, etc.7 The Hindu tantra works present two sides, one philosophical and spiritual, the other popular, practical and more or less magical which relies on mantras, mudras, mandalas, nyasas, chakras and yantras as physical means to realize one’s identity with the supreme power or energy by concentration and as conferring extraordinary powers on devotees.8 Regarding the contents of the Tantra, the Varahi Tantra gives a long list of 24 topics which include the following; the creation and dissolution of the world, classification of deities, description of tirthas (holy places), laws and duties for people in their different ashramas (stations of life), prescription of rules for vows, distinction between pious and sinful deeds, description of different psychic centers in the physical body, use of different Yantras (mystical diagrams), etc. A perusal of the long list of contents in any Tantra text shows their encyclopedic nature. But most of the Tantra being short in size do not cover all of these topic.9
Tantra and Aagama
The word Aagama or Aagamana means inductive experience. Aagama also means that which come, that is the knowledge which arises from within the self when spiritual impurity is removed. Aagama also means that which come by tradition. The two words Tantra and Aagama taken together mean a fully and logically worked out discipline or body (tantra) of knowledge that has come down by tradition and that is originally based on inductive experience (aagama) of the seers10 Aagama is that wisdom spoken by Lord Shiva to Parvathi. All available Aagamas contain a fourfold content-
Vidya Pada- section dealing with metaphysics,
Kriya Pada- section dealing with rituals,
Yoga Pada- section laying down modes of spiritual disciplines and
Charya Pada- section prescribing the daily routine of a spiritual seeker.11
The word Aagama and Tantra are often used as synonymous terms and there is also no distinction in respect of their essential teachings. The Aagama have been divided into Sat Aagamah or orthodox which accept the authority of the Vedas and Asat Aagamah or heterodox which do not accept the authority of the Vedas.12 The Aagamic scriptures as a whole have branched out in three main currents, the Shaiva, the Shakta and the Vaishnava sastras or scriptures.13 Usually the sastras of the Shaivas is referred as Aagama, that of Shaktas as Tantra and that of the Vaishnavas as Samhita.14
Thought the terms Tantra and Aagama are used synonymously the scope of Tantra is wider than that of Aagama as the former deals with as many as 25 subjects whereas the Aagamas covers only seven of the said 25 subjects.15 According to Varahi Tantra the Aagamas contain seven topics that includes origin and dissolution of the world, modes of worship of deities and modes of spiritual disciplines, purificatory rites and practice of magical rites called satkarmas namely marana- vanquishing enemies, ucatana- ruining of adversary, vashikarana- subjugation of enemies, stambhana- paralyzing enemies or inimical forces, vidveshana- causing hostility in enemies and svastyayana- rites for obtaining peace and prosperity.16
Antiquity of the Tantras
It is difficult to determine the exact time when the word tantra came to be employed in the sense in which it is used in the so called tantra literature nor is it possible to decide what people first introduced its principles and practices or where they first arouse.17 Dr. Bhattacharya says that the Buddhist were the first to introduce the tantras in their religion and that the Hindus borrowed them from the Buddhist in later times. But there is hardly any evidence of any Buddhist tantrik work before 650 A.D. except perhaps the Guhyasamajatantra and Manjushrimulakalpa, both of which contain late elements. There is evidence of the prevalence of tantra and shakta worship in India long before the 7th century A.D.18 Hence the question whether Buddhist tantra were prior to the Hindu tantras or vice versa is difficult to decide. It appears probable that both arose nearly about the same time.19 The Amarakosha composed around 500 A.D. is silent on the Tantras and so also the Chinese pilgrims who visited India during 400-700 A.D. make no reference to Tantra literature. It seems safe to assume that the Tantras did not take a define shape before seventh century though many mantras and hymns which they include may be of very much earlier date. The existing works on Tantra and commentaries written on them belong to the period 7th century to 18th century A.D.20
At the same time orthodox scholars believe that the Tantras may have existed from the time of the Vedas or may be even older than the Vedas. Of course the language of the Tantric texts presently available is the post Vedic Sanskrit systematized by Panini, which might suggest that Tantras are post Vedic. But almost all the traditions in ancient India existed first in oral form and were handed down from guru to disciple or from generation to generation. Hence it is reasonable to believe that the Tantra philosophy existed in oral form from the time of the Vedas if not earlier and was only written down after the time of the Vedas.21
Founder of Tantra
The founder of Tantra is Lord Shiva. He is known as Adi Guru, a great ascetic (Maha Yogi) and a great Tantrika (Maha Kaula). He attained occult power through Tantra sadhana.22 Lord Shiva was skilled in chemistry and medicine and was known for his yogic powers. He resided in the vicinity of Himalaya Mountain and his religious outlook was non-Vedic. He was a champion of the poor, diseased and the tyrannized. He made no distinction between the high and low. He had numerous followers all over India who were designated as Asuras, Rakshasas and Danavas by the Devas (Manavas). These followers of Shiva constantly clashed with Devas and caused hindrance to the sacrifices of the Brahmanas. Sati the daughter of Daksha a king who ruled a part of Himalayan territory fell in love with Shiva and married him though opposed by her father. Once when Sati heard that her father was performing a sacrifice, though uninvited she wished to attend it. At the venue of the ceremony Sati was humiliated by her father who used offensive words against Shiva. Unable to bear the humiliation Sati swooned never to regain her senses. When Shiva heard this he was furious and in rage desecrated the sacrificial ground. All these incidents mentioned in the Puranas are interpreted as a revolt against the domination of Brahmins and their sacrificial modes of worship. After this incident there was reconciliation between the followers of Vedic religion and followers of Shiva and the latter was included one among the Trinity and yoga prescribed as a method for spiritual advancement. Gradually the popularity of Tantra increased among all class of people.23
Inauguration of New Method of Worship
The advent of Mahesha or Ishwara as a prominent figure or conception of divinity marks an epoch in ancient Hindu civilization. A new method of worship and a new methodology were inaugurated which developed into the Tantras and the tantric system. Music, art, literature, yoga; were all getting a new life and a new form. Henceforth every department seems to start with the name of Iswara and his consort. The goddess becomes markedly prominent in the shape of Durga and Kali. The old gods Mitra, Varuna, Indra, Aswins were subordinated and gradually became mythological beings shorn of their divine importance.24
In the old method of worship the fire god is the duta or messenger and offerings were thrown to the fire were carried to different gods. In the new method Avahan, Dhyana, Shodashapachara, Dharana, Nyasa and Kshamaprarthana were introduced. The mythology as disclosed in the Vedas is quite different from the new mythology of the Tantras and Puranas. The new mythology deals principally with Shiva, Durga, Kali, etc. and does not deal principally with the Vedic deities. Goddesses became very prominent in the shapes of Dasamahavidya; all being different manifestation of Shakti. In the old method of worship prayers or hymns to divinity consisted mostly in asking for worldly boons and pardon as also for moral advancement. The new method of worship consisted of contemplation of divinity and merging of the smaller individual self into the higher ego (Brahman).25
Characteristics of Tantra
Tantra Shastra is meant for all classes irrespective of caste, creed, sex and all could be given spiritual initiation.
Tantra Shastra is primarily a sadhana shastra and it affords to all freedom to be engaged in spiritual practice according to one’s competence and shows the practical method which would qualify the spiritual aspirant (sadhaka) to proceed along the higher path of knowledge; knowledge in terms of experience as distinguished from intellectual theorizing alone.26
The most significant character of the Tantra is to synthesize all the facts apparently opposed to each other. Tantra Shastra embraces all the view points of the Indian mind right from the black magic of the occultist to the highest peaks of karma, bhakti, upasana and jnana yoga of the rishis, munis, siddhas and saints.27
Philosophy of the Tantra
The philosophical foundation upon which Hindu Tantrism rest is the Sivadvaita school of Hinduism which maintains that the Supreme Reality is Shiva himself, being a Pure Consciousness, which is self-luminous, all pervading, eternal and absolute. Shiva is endowed with a Shakti (a female principle) which is a part of Him and eternally coexisting in Him. Their collective name is Param Shiva representing two aspects of the Absolute, one transcendent and static Shiva and the other immanent and dynamic, the Shakti.28
The essence of Tantra philosophy is the attainment of the supreme unification of Self with Parama Shiva. This state of self-realization is both an enjoyment and liberation. To a Tantric sadhaka world is nothing but the manifestation of Reality. With the gradual ascent to God-path, one experience Him both in animate and inanimate objects. This realization of divine presence puts an end to all physical, mental and spiritual sufferings and inspires one to live up to the ideal and glory of man. According to Tantra the world is neither an illusion nor reality. Tantra put emphasis on the spiritual realization with ignoring the material aspect of life.29 According to S.K.Ramachandra Rao Tantra is primarily a practical discipline and its philosophy was never crystallized. The need was never strongly felt and much of the instruction was oral and situational. Some of the Tantric texts like Saradatilaka do deal with philosophical matter, but these accounts are neither systematic nor consistent. It is hard therefore to define and describe what may be called the Tantra philosophy.30
Factors favouring the rise of Tantra
The origin and development of the Tantras as a special class of literature and Tantras as a special mode of sadhana were intimately connected with the rise of Shaivism and Pancaratra movement.31 The Tantra form of sadhana probably came into special prominence when on the one hand, the elaborate details enjoined by the Vedic sacrifices taking a long time to be performed could not be accomplished by the people of feeble attainments and when on the other the Upanishadic method of acquisition of transcendent knowledge surpassed the intellects and equipment of the common people. The Puranas were at this time preaching the bhakti cult in order to place before the masses an easy method capable of being grasped and followed by all. Then the Tantras offered themselves to the people containing within them the essentials of the Vedic sacrifices and oblations, the essence of the monotheistic philosophy of the Upanishad, the bhakti cult preached by the Puranas, the Yoga method propounded by Patanjali and the mantra element of the Atharva Veda.32
Tantra preached the principle of mukti (liberation) through bhukti (enjoyment) and did not advocate the repression of natural human propensities. It also did not advocate its adherents to give up eating meat and drinking wine and in the observance of Tantric rituals there was no caste restriction, all these factors gave rise to the popularity of Tantras.33
The development of Tantric Hinduism reached its zenith in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa under the Pala kings who ruled these parts of eastern India from 760-1142 A.D., in Kanyakubja under the Pratihara kings from 800-1019 A.D. and in Bundelkhand under the Chandella kings from 950- 1203 A.D.34
Was Tantra an alternate to Vedas?
What was the necessity of Tantra to emerge when there was Veda and many Vedic based scripture like Dharmasastra and the six philosophical treatises? This was because the elitist sastras failed to satisfy the aspirations of the common men particularly the shudras and women. In the post-Vedic scriptures, shudras and women were marginalized. They were denied the right to perform sacrifices and to participate in other religious observances. Moreover as life became busier and living more complicated, people felt the need for easier ways of devotion than the elaborate rituals. The orthodox Brahmanical scriptures demanded self-mortification and renunciation as stepping stones to liberation. This stifled the people’s natural inclination for enjoyment of sex, drinking wine and eating meat, etc. All these reasons led to the composition of Tantras, which provided easier methods of devotion without denying the satisfaction of natural human propensities.35 As Tantra was a collective expression of numerous tribal and regional cults36 it could be termed as an alternative religion of the commoners as against the Vedas which was the religion of the elitist.
According to S.S.Suryanarayana Sastri from a very early stage in the history of Indian philosophical speculation there would seem to have been two currents of thoughts, the Vedic and the Agamic (Tantric), apparently independent and antagonistic. The Mahabharatha mentions Pancaratra (Agama texts of the Vaishnavas) as one among the various kinds of religion, the other being, Samkya, Yoga, Vedas and Pashupatas.37
The smrti texts based on the Vedas repudiated the Pancaratra doctrines as they initiated and admitted within their sect even women and Shudras.38 Badarayana in his Brahma Sutras refutes the Pashupata and the Pancaratra Agamas.39 Similarly the Agamic schools rejected the authority of the Vedas. The Anandabhairava Tantra declares-‘A wise man should not elect as his authority the words of Vedas which is full of impurity, produces but scanty and transitory fruits and is limited. He should instead sustain the authority of the Shaiva scriptures. Abhinavagupta in his Tantraloka remarks-‘That which according to the Veda is a source of sin leads according to this doctrine (Tantra) directly to liberation. In fact all the Vedic teaching is dominated by Maya.40 In Mahanirvana Tantra Shiva declares- ‘The fool who follow other doctrines heedless of mine is as great a sinner as a parricide or the murderer of a Brahman or of a woman. The Vedic rites and mantras which were efficacious in the first age have ceased to have power in this age. They are now as powerless as snakes whose fangs have been drawn and are like dead things.41 The Kularnava says ‘Mukti does not result from the study of the Veda nor by the study of shastras, it results from correct knowledge alone which is imparted by the teaching of the guru and which confers mukti.42
Differences between Tantras and Vedas
The Vedic ritual is propitiatory and sacrificial while the Tantra (Agamic) ritual consists essentially in devote worship of and personal communion with the deity.
The study of Vedas is restricted to certain castes while the doctrines of Tantra could be studied irrespective of sex or caste.
The Vedic worship is mainly sacrificial while the Tantric method of worship involves idols, symbols and meditation.43
The Brahman of Vedic thought is static while the Brahman (Siva) of the Tantra is dynamic.44
Tantra is a cult and the Veda a religio-philosophical school
Tantra is for salvation of the soul and the Veda for the enrichment of mind.45
Vedic knowledge comes mainly through the process of revelation whereas the Tantric knowledge comes mainly through experiences.46
Reconciliation between Tantra and Vedas
At first the Vedic tradition and the Tantric tradition were almost irreconcilable. Each camp looked upon the other as antagonistic, perverse and purposeless. If the Puranas proclaimed that the Tantras were prepared only in order to confound the wicked the Tantras like Kularnava claimed that a Tantra is like an honourable house wife while the Veda with its accessories like Puranas and shastras is like a common harlot. The orthodox view projected mainly by Kumarila (early 6th century) holds that Tantra was meant for the degenerate, the uneducated, the fallen or the infirm and that its rituals were fraught with dangers of all sorts. But the Tantrik enthusiasts held and hold even now that the Vedas being antiquated cannot lead to much good. There was obviously a struggle for ascendance and each tradition geared itself up to meet the needs of both the folk and the elite. And in the process inevitably each modeled itself after the other, assimilated the attractive particulars of the other and attempted to secure the authority and support of the other. The Tantrik adherents sought to show that Tantra had Vedic foundation, Vedic sanction and Vedic authority. The Vedic puritans took over many of the hand gestures (mudras), spells (mantras) and magic designs (mandalas) the Tantriks employed together with their method of exposition.47
The reconciliation between the two divergent traditions was partly effected by the orthodox authorities affiliating the Tantra to the Saubhagya kanda of Atharvaveda and the Tantrik writers relying heavily on Vedic texts like Taittiriya Aranyaka and describing their scriptures as continuation of the Upanishadic traditions. The Vedic rituals adopted numerous Tantrik details and the Tantra abandoned its cruder ideology in favour of the austere aspiration of the Upanishads.48
Attempts to Sanskritise Tantra
Although later authors of Tantric texts and commentators on these texts sought to base their doctrines and commentaries on the Vedas, Tantra remained a separate branch of knowledge quite outside the pale of Vedic tradition. This was due to the fact that in the ideological conflict between the two tradition, the Veda and Tantra, the latter held its own although many of its theoreticians mostly Brahmins covertly or openly supported the Vedic tradition and fabricated the Tantra in the Vedic lines. In spite of all sorts of Brahmanical interpolations, grafting and handling, Tantra clearly rejects the varna system and patriarchy and in the field of religion, all external formalities in regard to spiritual quests.49
Seeds of Tantra in Atharva Veda
At Mohenjodaro a seal have been discovered with a figure in yogic posture and surrounded by animals and is identified with Shiva. Also a number of conical stone, shell and clay pieces have been found which is identified as a Linga. Similarly a number of terracotta figurines of a female figure have been found which is identified with mother goddess.50 All these show that Shiva and mother goddess were worshipped during the time when the urban civilization at Harappa and Mohenjodaro were flourishing. This implies that Tantra flourished during that period as Shaivism and Shaktism are the two aspects of Tantra. Shaktism represents the beginning of Tantra sadhana and Shaivism is the culminating point of the spiritual march.51 The urban civilization which flourished at Harappa is identified with the Atharavan phase of the Vedic civilization and this has led scholars to believe that the Atharva Veda as the basis of all the tantras, especially those connected with the worship of the mother goddess. The Sammohana Tantra asserts that without the worship of Kali or Tara there can be no practical application of Atharvan charms and spells.52
The Atharva Veda is an inestimable source of knowledge of the actual popular religion of ancient India and for its populist character had been for centuries tabooed in the upper echelons of the society dominated by the sacerdotal class.53 This Veda is quite different from the Rig Veda in content and form and hence was not recognized as a revealed scripture (Sruti). The word trayi which is used to signify the Vedic scriptures does not recognize the Atharva Veda as the fourth Veda. Panani the grammarian of India describes the Veda as trayi and Dayananda Saraswati the founder of Arya Samaj condemn the Atharva Veda as a heretical literature.54 As the name of the seers who composed the Atharva Veda did not figure in the traditional lists of the Vedic seers (anukramanis), for long the Atharva Veda was denied the status enjoyed by the trayi.55 It was only after the insertion of about 1/7th part of the Rig Veda and associating mythical sages as authors with it did the Atharva Veda get elevated as the fourth Veda.56 The Atharva Veda mainly deals with the Tantric cult and covers all the branches of Tantrism. Atharva Veda is a compendium of Vidya Tantra which propagates the philosophy of Brahma Vada and Upavidya Tantra which deals about charms and sorceries.57
Tantras and Puranic Dharma
Among the followers of Vaishnavas and Shaivas were a section of Brahmins who while believing in the worship of Vishnu and Shiva as a means to attain salvation also looked upon the Vedas as authorities, attached great importance to varnashrama dharma and the smrti rules and did not like to give them up. The Puranic Dharma originated from these classes of people who were also the authors of the various Puranas.58 As the Trantrics preached ideas and practices which often went against the Brahmanical ones, the early Puranas denounced the Tantras as Mohana Sastra59 and the Tantra scriptures as inferior and tamasi. They agreed that Shiva had revealed the Tantras but his reason for doing so was to delude the apostate and distract him from the true path. In Varaha Purana Rudra himself denounces the Pashupatas and the other followers of the Shaivagamas as given to mean and sinful acts and as addicted to meat, wine and women.60 In chapter 15 of Kurma Purana it is said that the great sinners the Pancaratrins were produced as a result of killing cows in some other birth, that they are absolutely non-Vedic and that the literature of the Shaktas, Shaivas and the Pancaratras are for the delusion of mankind.61
But from about the end of eighth century or the beginning of ninth century A.D. the Puranas began to recognize the Tantras as one of the authorities on religious matters. Tantric mantras and performance of Nyasas and Mudras were introduced in diksha (initiation ceremony), consecration of images, performance of sandhyavandana, and the Yantra as a medium of worship was also recognized. This recognition must have been effected by the great spread of Tantricism among the people including even the Buddhist.62 The Devi, Devibhagavata and the Kalika and large portions of Narada Purana are extensively Tantric.63
Both Tantras and Puranas are didactic and sectarian. As a rule Tantras contains less historical and legendary matter and more directions as to ritual. While the Puranas approve of Vedic rites as well as other, for which they give directions, the Tantras insist that ceremonies other than theirs prescribed are useless.64
Reasons for Tantra to acquire a negative image
Tantras do not believe in caste and creed. Tantric social system runs counter to the rigid Vedic system of caste and creed. There is no place for a Brahmin priest in tantric sadhana. That is why Brahmins started a tirade against tantras and declared the followers of tantras as outcaste.65
Another main cause for the apathy towards Tantra was the baseless Aryan bias. Earlier scholars equated Tantra with the so called degraded forms of Hinduism supposed to be the legacies of uncivilized aboriginal cultures. To these learned western scholars just as the Englishmen came to India with a civilizing mission, so also in the past aboriginal Indians were civilized by the Aryans who came from outside. To them whatever is noble and praiseworthy in Hinduism is found in the so called Aryan tradition that is the Vedic texts and Brahmanical literature and all the barbarous and degraded aspects attributed to Tantras are derived from the uncivilized non-Aryans. This idea was also shared by the learned Indians who belonged mostly if not exclusively to the upper strata of society who took pride in thinking of themselves as direct descendants of the great Aryan race.66
The practice of Panchamakaras involving wine and women which was considered as obnoxious and revolting and the inclusions of the six magical rites called Satkarmas in the Agamas led people develop a negative attitude towards Tantras.
In course of time for some people, Tantric practices became exclusively self-indulgent. Excessive drinking and promiscuous sexual unions marked their so called rituals. As Tantra attaches importance to guru and gurus being hereditary, sometimes a worthless and avaricious son of a guru led to denegation of Tantra. This led western and Indian scholars to believe that obscenity was the soul of this cult and even patriots like Bankim Chandra Chaterjee viewed Tantra as a misguiding principle which offered only wine and women in the name of religion.67
Contributions of Tantra
Tantra is the oldest and the most scientific religion of the world. It is the first spiritual faith laying down ethical norms to be strictly observed for the spiritual enlightenment and integrated development of society.68
Tantras endeavored to provide a common platform for differing and wrangling sects of Vaishnavas, Shaivas and others by putting forward Devi as the object of worship for all.69
The Tantra placed women on a footing of equality with men and accorded them an exalted position. She could play the role of a guru and in certain tantric rites was worshiped as Shakti.70
The orthodox Brahmanical scriptures by compartmentalization of society into four castes and by rigorous divisions of the people into higher and lower classes fostered animosity among them. There was an upsurge for leveling down this invidious discrimination. Tantra came forward to reduce the rigours of the caste system and put more premium on merit than the accident of birth.71
The murder of a woman is regarded as a heinous crime by Tantrists and they denounced prostitution and burning of widows and allowed remarriage of girl widows.72
The popularity of Tantra compelled the orthodox Brahmanical sastra to incorporate Tantra practices. For instance the Tantric concepts of mandala, mudra, yantra, the mystic bija mantras like hrim, krim, kumara puja, etc. crept into the traditional works of the Brahmanas. Similarly Buddhism was also deeply influenced by Tantras.73
Tantra developed a system of medical treatment for diseases affecting men, women and children. As the human body was considered essential for Tantric sadhanas, various drugs both herbal and chemical were prescribed for the preservation of youth and virility and for the treatment of diseases; so also medicines for rejuvenation and destroying the effects of various kinds of poisons.74
Art and architecture was also influenced by Tantra. There are many images of various Tantric deities particularly of Kali in her different forms. Many temples sculptures particularly of Odisha and south India show an abundance of tantric motifs. Several temples in south India worship Sri Chakra, the yantra associated with the Sri Vidya cult. There are also painting of Kali and other tantric deities as also of mandalas, mudras, yantras and Kundalini.75
The rational and liberal outlook of Tantras made it popular in foreign countries like Tibet, Nepal and Cambodia. Thus Tantras played an important role in the spread of Indian religious concepts abroad.76
The living Hindu religion of today is essentially Tantric. Even a few genuine Vedic rites that are preserved and are supposed to be derived straight from the Vedas, i.e. the Sandhya have been modified by the addition of tantric practices.77 The rituals of the temples based on Agamas have replaced the Vedic yajnas.78
Classification of Hindu Tantric Literature
According to the tradition found in Tantric texts themselves Tantras are innumerable. The Saundaryalahari refers to 64 Tantras. The Tantraloka of Abhinavagupta states that there are three groups of ten, eighteen and sixty-four Shaiva tantas. In the Mahasiddhasaratantra, India and its adjoining regions are divided into three krantas or divisions namely Vishnukranta (extended from Vindhya hills up to Chittagong and included all places in North-Eastern region), Rathakranta (comprised of the entire area in the North-Western region which lay between the Vindhyas and Mahachina or Tibet) and Ashvakranta (extended from the Vindhyas the southern oceans); each of these krantas is said to has 64 tantras. A number of tantric texts speak of nine or six amnayas or regions- eastern, western, northern, southern, upper and lower- each containing its distinctive texts, cults and rituals. From geographical point of view tantra are divided into four classes, viz. Kerala, Kashmira, Gauda and Vilasa.79
Tantra texts are classified into Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina tantras; Hindu tantras are broadly divided into two classes, Agama and Nigama. In the former Shiva answers questions asked by Parvathi and in the Nigama Parvathi answers questions asked by Shiva. In accordance with the predominance of the deities Hindu Tantras are also classified into Shakta, Shaiva, Vaishnava, Saurya and Ganapatya. The works of Shakta, Shaiva and Vaishnava are called respectively Tantras, Agamas and Samhitas.80 Some divide tantric texts into the following group- Agama, Damara, Yamala and Tantra.81
The Damara tantra is dedicated to Lord Shiva and his mystical teachings. Damara has several meaning; it means ‘wonder’, ‘goblin’ or an attendant of Shiva. The Damara tantra includeds Yogadamara, Shivadamara, Durgadamara, Sarasvatadamara, Gandharvadamara, Brahmadamara, etc.82 It is not clear what was the characteristic feature of Damara except that they were preoccupied with magic or exorcism.83
The Yamala tantra contains the secret conversations between different deities and their respective consorts. The word Yamala literally means twins, united or a couple. The Yamala tantra includes texts like Rudrayamala, Vishnuyamala, Brahmayamala, Lakshmiyamala, Umayamala, Skandayamala, Adityayamala, and Bhairavayamala among others.84 The Yamala indicate a great development in the tantrika sadhana not only by trying to define for the first time the various tantric traditions but also by introducing a great variety of cults of new gods and goddesses. They open the field of tantric sadhana to people of all castes.85 In the Yamalas the sadhana of the Agamas assumes a pronounced character of Shaktism. The religion of Agamas had developed through two channels, one exoteric and the other esoteric. The former continued as a part of Shaivism with greater emphasis on the devotional aspect of the worship of Shiva and Pashupati with a view to attain liberation. The latter centered as Shaktism with greater emphasis on various Shakti cult not so much as to attain liberation but to gain ascendancy and control over the forces of nature, liberation was too small a goal for them. In course of time (around 10th century A.D.) the literature of pure Shavism ceased to be called Tantra and Tantra proper became more Shaktic in character.86
Literature of Vaishnava Tantras
The Vaishnava Tantras are represented by the Pancaratra Agamas and Vaikhanasa Agamas which were originally voluminous in form but unfortunately a considerable part of them has now been lost. The Vaishnava Agamas said to be 108 in number seem to be developments of the Bhagavata and Pancharatra and the Sattvata schools which are mentioned in the Mahabharatha. The differentiation into schools seems to have originally depended on the specific mantra, which was the shibboleth of each school. Thus it appears that the Bhagavatas adopted the 12 lettered mantra and Pancharatras the 8 lettered one. The fundamental ideas and practices of the Bhagavatas have been adopted by the Ramanuja, Madhava and the later schools of bhakti. The 108 Agamas are all called Pancharatra Agamas.87
According to the Narada Pancaratra, ratra means knowledge; hence Pancaratra is a system which deals with five kinds of knowledge, cosmology (tatva), the science of liberation, (muktiprada), of devotion (bhaktiprada), of yoga (yaugika) and pertaining to the senses (vaishesika). According to Ishvara Samhita the religion that was taught by the gods to five sages; Shandilya, Aupagayana, Maunjayana, Kaushika and Bharadvaja, in five successive days and nights came to be known among the people as Pancaratra. According to Padma Tantra the system is so named because just as the sun dispels the night, the Pancaratra dispels the other five systems which are the Yoga, Samkya, Buddhism, Jainism and Pashupata.88 Although tradition mention 108 Samhita there are actually mention of more than 215 of which however only very few have been published.89
The well-known Pancharatra Agamas are the Ahirbudhnya Samhita, Jayakhya Samhita, Vishnu Samhita, and Satvata Samhita. Of the Vaikhanasa School only four namely Vaikhanasa Mantra Samhita, Vaikhanasa Grhyasutra, Dharmasutra and Shrautasutra are now available.90 Other important works of belonging to Vaishnava Tantras are Ishvarasamhita, Paramasamhita, Paushkarasamhita and Lakshmi Tantra.
Literature of Shaiva Tantras
The literature belonging to Shaiva and Shakta tantricism is extensive. There is a great deal of affinity between these two schools of thought so much so that there is considerable overlapping between them so far as metaphysical theory and ritualistic principles are concerned. It is sometimes very difficult to differentiate between the two schools in the tantric texts belonging to these two schools.
According to traditions the total number of Shaiva Tantras is 28 which include ten Shaivagamas or Shaiva Tantras and 18 Raudragamas. While the Shaivagamas propagate dualistic philosophy the Raudagamas propagate monistic cum dualistic philosophy. The names of these Agamas differ in different texts. Apart from the above texts there is a group of 64 Bhairava Tantras which preach purely monistic Shaiva philosophy.91 Some of the important works belonging to the Kashmir school of Shaivism are Abhinavagupta’s Tantraloka, Tantrasara, Pratyabhijnavimarshini and Pratyabhijnakarika; Sivasutra, Malinivijaya, Vijnanabhairava, Rudrayamala, Svayambhuva, etc.92
Literature of Shakta Tantras
There are 77 Shakta Agamas subdivided into five Shubhagamas, 64 Kaulagamas and eight Mishragamas.93 The tenets of the Samaya schools are contained in five agamas known as shubhaagama panchaka which are regarded as interpretations of the Veda by Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatkumara, Vasishta and Shuka. The Mishra literature is contained in eight agamas namely Chandrakala, Jyotsnavati, Kalanidhi, Kularnava, Kuleshvari, Bhuvaneshvari, Barhaspatya and Durvasas.94 Some of the published Kaula works are Kularnava Tantra, Kula Chudamani, Kaulavali, Vamakesvara Tantra, Meru Tantra, Gandharva Tantra, Sambhava Tantra, Rudrayamala, Bramananda Tantra, Sri tattvachintamani, Tantraraja, etc. Works like Kaula Tantra, Kulasasana, Kuladipani, Tantrachudamani, Agamasara, etc are available in manuscript form deposited in different libararies.95 Other important Shakta tantric works include Mahanirvana, Tantraraja, Kalivilasa, Jnanarnava, Sharadatilaka and Varivasyarahasya.96
Tantric Denominations
The Tantra worshippers are divided into various sects and sub sects based on deities worshipped and the ritualistic procedure followed. The Shaktisangama Tantra refers to the sects of Vaishnavas, Shaivas, Ganapatyas, Svayambhuvas, Candras, Pashupatas, Cinas, Jainas, Kalamukhas and Vaidikas. But judged by the number of followers they have we have three major sects, namely Shaiva (worshippers of Shiva), Shakta (worshippers of Shakti or divine mother) and Vaishnava (worshipper of Vishnu) and two minor sects, namely Ganapatyas (worshippers of Ganesha) and Souras (worshippers of Surya the sun god). These sects are once again subdivided into various sub-sects.97
According to Lalan Prasad Singh the Vaishnava, Shaiva and Shakta are the metaphysical schools of Tantra; Avidya, Upavidya and Vidya are the esoteric division of Tantra and Dakshinacara, Vamachara and Madhyamacara the psychological schools of Tantra.98
In the view of Kamalakar Mishra there are several traditions and sub traditions of Tantra in India, some of which have become extinct and some still living. Accordingly the living traditions are classified under three major denominations namely Shaiva-Shakta Tantra, Buddhist Tantra and Vaishnava Tantra. All the sub trend of Tantrism can be placed under one or the other denomination. For example the Natha tradition of Gorakhanatha and the Aghora tradition of Kinarama can be regarded as branches of Shaiva Shakta Tantra. Similarly the Sahajiya cult of Bengal which might have originated from the Buddhist Sahajayana and later on taken Vaishnava form can be safely classified as Vaishnava Tantra. The Baul tradition of eastern India seems to be a combination of Buddhist Tantra, Vaishnava Tantra and Islamic Sufism. The Kapalika tradition which flourished in the medieval period is now virtually extinct is an off shoot of Buddhist Tantra with a mixture of Shaiva-Shakta Tantra. The cults of Shaiva-Shakta Tantra are divided into two lineages, the Girnari and Newari. Girnar in Gujarat is the seat of Lord Dattatreya and he is regarded as the original leader of Shaiva-Shakta Tantra. The followers of Aghora tradition owe their allegiance to Dattatreya and are called Girnaris. Newar is the sub Himalayan region chiefly Nepal. The followers of Natha tradition are mainly Newari.99
Tantric Buddhism
According to Benoytosh Bhattacharyya the founder of Buddhist Tantrism was Buddha and he was initiated into the mysticism of the Tantra by Sanjaya, a great tantric yogin of the day. The Jatakas speak of Buddha performing miracles. Only the closest disciples of Buddha practiced tantra and the general laity was kept away from it as they had not reached an advance stage of spiritual development. The secret conclaves of the Buddhist tantrics developed into a large underground organization known as Guhyasamajas which practiced the new doctrines in secret (guhya). The teachings of Guhyasamajas emerged as a respectable teaching during the time of Nagarjuna around 300 A.D. and evolved as the Vajrayana school of Tantrism. One of the main teachings of this school was that without suffering the multiple reincarnations and even during one’s birth and by indulging in all objects of earthly enjoyment one could attain Buddhahood. The Guhyasamaja integrated into the system of Vajrayana Tantrism all form of mysticism, various forms of yoga, mystic poses, sacred diagrams, mandala, mantras, dhyani Buddhas and their Shakti deities, etc. While Vajrayana represents the most influential school of Tantric Buddhism, other major schools which evolved are Sahajayana, Kalachakrayana and Mantrayana.100
Difference between Buddhist Tantrism and Hindu Tantrism
Benoytosh Bhattacharyya emphatically states that Buddhists were the first to introduce the Tantra into their religion and the Hindus borrowed them from the Buddhist in later times. In Hindu Tantrism the union of Shiva and Shakti leads to the creation of a new world; while in tantric Buddhism Shakti represents prajna, the supreme knowledge and wisdom and her union of the male deity Kalacakra does not create a new world but leads to Nirvana, the supreme bliss, knowledge and enlightenment.101 Some of the important Buddhist tantric works are Advaya Siddi, Arya Manjusri Mulakalpa, Sambhara Tantra, Guhya Siddi, Hevajra Tantra, Kalacakra Tantra, Mahakala Tantra, Sadhana Mala, etc.102
Schools of Shaiva Tantras
The Shaiva schools are so intimately allied to the Shakta schools that the literature and doctrines of one are quoted as authoritative by the other. The chief characteristic of the Shaiva School is that Shiva is the prominent being and especially in the later developments of these schools, Shakti is almost negligible factor of the cosmos.103
The worshippers of Shaiva are referred under four groups namely Shaivas, the Pashupatas, the Karunikasiddhantins and the Kapalikas. The name Kathakasiddhantins and Kalamukhas are referred in place of Karunikasiddhantins in other sources. The Viraagama refers to four schools of Shaivas as Samaya Shaiva, Purva Shaiva, Mishra Shaiva and Suddha Shaiva. Some Puranas refer to Shaiva sects such as Vama, Pashupata, Soma, Langala, Bhairava, Kapala and Nakula. They were considered as un-Vedic. Gunaratna refers to a number of sub sects like Bharata, Bhakta, Laingika, etc. Other famous Shaiva schools are the followers of Siddhantaagamas and the Lingayats or the Virashaivas in south India.104
The Parameshwara Agama mentions Shaiva sects like Virashaiva, Anandashaiva, Adishaiva, Anushaiva, Mahashaiva, Yogashaiva and Jnanashaiva. Apart from them seven other schools have been enumerated namely Ganapatya, Virabhadra, Bhairava, Sharabha, Nandikesha, Kumara and Paishaca which are again sub divided into several sub sects.105 In Kashmir the important Shaiva schools were the Spanda, the Krama and Kula. Abhinava Gupta the founder of the Pratyabhijna School incorporated the teaching of Spanda, Krama and Kula into Pratyabhijna.106
Schools of Vaishnava Tantras
The two important Vaishnava schools are the Pancharatra and the Vaikhanasa. The former is considered as sathvika and superior to Vaikhanasa which is considered as tamasika.107 The Pancharatra School is more liberal in its outlook and practice and tantric practices have exerted a very deep influence on it. The Vaikhanasa School on accounts of its pure Vedic links perhaps arouse earlier than the Pancharatra school and naturally tantric mantras (and yantras) have no role to play in Vaikhanasa.108
Schools of Shakta Tantras
There are three principal schools of Shakta Tantrism namely the Samaya, the Mishra and the Kaula. The Samaya school is concerned with internal worship or meditation. It has nothing to do with external worship or rituals including muttering of mantras, homa and purashcarana. It lays stress on mental performance of the rites which is very difficult and can be known only from the preceptor. Among Samayin are two groups, samanya or general and vishista or special.109 The Mishras perform all nitya karmas and worship Devi. The Kaula school is one of the most powerful Shakta schools which occupies a unique position among the left handed Shakta tradition with a history of 1300 years. It was popular in all parts of the country and directly and indirectly influenced the religio-philosophical thoughts of all Shaiva-Shakta schools. According to Kularnava Tantra- The Shaivas are superior to the Vedic, the left handed and right handed Shaktas are superior to the Shaivas, the Kaulas are superior to both left and right handed and there is none which surpasses the Kaulas.110 The Kaulas are pure monists who postulate one Supreme Reality which they name as the Supreme Samvit.111
A number of sub schools exist among the Kaulas and the Kaularatnodyota list six schools namely- Ananda, Avali, Prabhu, Yaugika, Atika and Pada. The Kaulajnananirnaya a Tantrik test ascribed to Matsyendranath mention seven distinct schools of Kaula worshippers like Padottistha Kaula, Maha Kaula, Mula Kaula, Yogini Kaula, Vahni Kaula, Vrishnottha Kaula and Siddha Kaula. Jayaratha in his commentary on the Tantraloka mention four Kaula schools like Maha Kaula, Kaula, Akaula and Kula Kaula.112 There is also mention of Kaula sub sects like Purva Kaulas, Uttara Kaulas and Kapalikas. The Digambaras are stated to be a sub sect of the Kapalikas while the Ksapanakas a sub sect of the Digambaras.113 Another important Shakta school is the Parananda or Paramananda school which is similar to the Samayins in some respects though it is characterized by certain peculiarities. It taboos Nyasas and killing of living beings. Other Shakta schools are the Gaudas, the Kashmira and the Kerala schools.114 Though different texts refer to a variety of Kaula schools established by different Kaula teachers in different periods of time each of which is characterized by a particular mode of spiritual discipline, they fail to mention their distinguishing traits. Hence it is not possible for us now to delineate their individual nature.115
Shakti Pitas
According to Devibhagavata and Kalika Purana, Lord Shiva became inconsolable at the death of his wife Sati and after destruction of Daksha’s sacrifice; he wandered over the earth in mad dance with Sati’s dead body on his shoulder. To free Shiva from his infatuation, Brahma, Vishnu and Shani entered the dead body and disposed of it gradually and bit by bit. In some accounts it is said that Sati’s body was severed into pieces by the discus of Lord Vishnu. The places where the pieces of Sati’s dead body fell are said to have become Pitas, that is seats or resorts of the mother goddess in all of which she is represented to be constantly living in some form together with a Bhairava, that is a form of her husband Shiva. We have heard of the enshrining of the teeth, nails and possessions of Lord Buddha in different parts of India and even outside it shores. Hence there may be some truth behind the legends associated with the origins of the Pitas.116 Some of the early Tantras refer to four Pitas namely Kamarupa in Assam, Purnagiri (place not identified), Oddiyana (situated in the valley of the Swat river) and Jalandhara (situated on the highway connecting Tibet with India).117 But in an 16th century account the four Pitas mentioned are Sharada in modern Sardi in north Kashmir, Tulja Bhavani in Bijapur district of Karnataka, Kamakhya in Kamarupa and Jalandhari near Nagarkot in Punjab.118
There is no unanimity with regards to the number of Pitas. The Rudrayamala composed earlier than 1052 A.D. mentions ten holy places as the principal pitas.119 The Kubjika Tantra speaks of 42 pitas120 while the Jnanarnava Tantra speaks of 50 pitas121 and the Matsya Purana speaks of 108 pitas.122
Dashamahavidyas
The Tantrik texts speak of ten Vidyas or cultic goddesses whose worship is commended for health, happiness, wealth and welfare here and liberation from phenomenal bondage hereafter. The ten divinities are classified into-
The extraordinary vidyas (maha vidyas) where the divinities are Kali and Tara
The ordinary vidyas (vidyas) with divinities like Shodashi or Tripurasundari, Bhuvaneshvari, Chinnamasta, Bhairavi and Dhumavati
Adept vidyas (siddha vidyas) where divinities like Bagalamukhi, Matangi and Kamala are worshipped.
The practice of extraordinary vidyas is filled with great risks as the devotee is supposed to exercise great rigour, austerity, persistence and detachment while worshipping the divinities. So also is the case of adept vidyas which involve rituals of a kind that the common man would find extremely ardous and hazardous. The ordinary vidyas are suitable for ordinary aspirants and are considered safe. Each of these Vidyas has a characteristic form and particular dhyana, mantra, kavacha and other details of tantric ritual.123
The gods of Mahavidyas are in fact the manifestations of Shakti or the Great Mother in the process of creation, preservation and destruction of the universe.124
The primal (adya) vidya is Kali who is the bestower of direct liberation while goddess Tara is the bestower of knowledge. The third goddess Shodashi is known for her benevolence. Goddess Bhuvaneshwari is conceived of as the protectress of the world while Bhairavi as the goddess who relieves her worshipper from all types of distress. Chinnamasta bestows on her worshippers anything they want and Dhumati is invoked for the purpose of destroying enemies. Goddess Vagala, Matangi and Kamala are goddess of tamas quality and invoked especially in connection with satkarma and allied purpose.125
Texts that dwell in detail on the Mahavidyas are the Tantrasara, Shakta Pramoda, Shaktisamgama-tantra, etc.126 The lists or depictions of the Mahavidya almost always include Kali, Tara, Chinnamasta, Bagalamukhi, Tripurasundari and Dhumavati, but the others are sometimes excluded. At times well known goddesses such as Durga, Annapurna and Kamakhya may be included in the list and even obscure goddesses such as Vashali, Bala and Pratyangiras are included.127
Both literary and iconographic materials give the general impression that the ten Mahavidyas are different forms of an overarching, transcendent female reality, who is usually referred to simply as the Mahadevi (great goddess).128 An underlying assumption of many Shakta texts is that the highest reality is the Great Goddess and this infinitely great being manifests herself in a wide variety of forms. Many myths in Shakta literature describe a goddess or the goddess as producing other goddesses from her own body. In such cases she often announces that she assumes different forms at different times to maintain cosmic stability, to bless a particular devotee or out of a sense of sport or playfulness. There is evidence that the ten avataras (incarnations) of Vishnu are the model for the ten Mahavidyas as expressions of the Mahadevi that is the Mahadevi represents at least to some extent a Shakta version of the Vaishnava idea.129
Regarding the origin of Mahavidya as a group the first version is that the Mahavidyas are different forms of Goddess Sati, the second version is that they are form of Parvathi, the third version is that they arise from goddess Kali, herself one of the Mahavidya and the fourth version is that they are forms of goddess Durga and the fifth version is that they are said to arise from goddess Shataksi who is identified with Shakambari and Durga.130
Sri Vidya Cult
The Sri Vidya cult is of considerable antiquity and in its origin was a folk cult with a beginning before the formation of the Vedic corpus. But in due course the folk elements and sophisticated Vedic ideas were fused together and the cult assumed its present form. This cult is prevalent all over India and there are regional variations in the practical details of the tradition.131
Vidya usually means knowledge, learning, discipline, system of thought. But in the tantric contest it has an extended meaning and it signifies a female divinity or her power. The mother goddess Durga is described as stationed in all being in the form of Vidya. Adepts of Sri Vidya cult recite a 15 lettered mantra known as panchadasakshari. By adding the secret syllable ‘shrim’ it becomes shodashi (16 lettered). Shodashi literally means ‘the damsel of sixteen years’ and her form is identified with deities like Lalitha, Rajarajeshvari, Sundari, Kameshvari and Bala. According to texts this vidya is called Shodashi as the manta of this vidya consists of 16 seed syllables. The verbal expression of this vidya is the mantra panchadashi or shodashi and the visual expression is the yantra, Sri Chakra. The chief instrument through which the mother goddess is propitiated and the knowledge concerning her as put into practice is Sri Chakra yantra.132
Sri Chakra
The Sri Chakra is the most celebrated and potent yantra mentioned in the Tantra sastra. It is famous as the eternal abode of Lalitha, the mother of grace. Sri Chakra is called the king of Chakras for it contains and sustains all other Chakras in the same way as the Divine Mother, the abiding deity in the Sri Chakra is the source and sustenance of all the gods and goddesses. The Tantra says that the worship of any deity can be conducted in Sri Chakra as this is the foundation, basis and continent of all the other Chakras.133
The mere presence of Sri Chakra is believed to confer on the faithful material and spiritual benefits. There are several temples in south India like Kanchipuram, Chidambaram, Sringeri, Kollur, etc. where the worship of Sri Chakra assumes importance.134
Worship through Sri Chakra is more abstract than worship through pratima, image and leads one to the direct perception of the divine form and that is why so much importance is given to the Chakra in Tantric worship. When the Chakra is conceived as the material manifestation of the deity, all the emanations of the deity are also conceived as stationed in the Chakra. The main deity (pradhana) takes abode in the centre of the Chakra while its emanations gather round the pradhana as the parivara devathas. The worship is done to the parivaras and then to the pradhana.135
There are nine Chakras in the Sri Chakra, proceeding from the outermost to the innermost they are Trailokya Mohana, Sarvasaparipuraka, Sarvasankshobhana, Sarvasaubhagyadayaka, Sarvarthasadhaka, Sarvarakshakara, Sarvarogahara, Sarvasiddhiprada and Sarvanandamaya chakras. Each chakra has a colour of its own, a presiding deity, Chakreshvari and a particular class of Yoginis belonging to it. Each chakra has its own mudra devata.136
There are two ways to worship the Sri Chakra, external and internal. In external worship one worship the Sri Chakra by adoring it with leaves of bilva, lotuses or tulsi, flowers, waves lamps in front of it, etc., do the japa of Sri Vidya (panchadashi or shodashi mantra) and recites the thousand names of Lalitha (Lalithasahasranama). In inner worship all these activities are imagined. The followers of Samaya marga install (imagine) the Sri Chakra in the adhara chakra or basic centres in their subtle bodies and conduct the worship of the goddess there.137
Shankaracharya and Sri Vidya cult
It is said that Sri Shankaracharya was initiated in the tantric cult of Sri Vidya at Varanasi and the principal poetic work of this cult Saundaryalahari is ascribed to his authorship; so also tantric works like Prapanchasara and Chintamani-Stava. But S.K.Ramachandra Rao says that the authorship of the above works are wrongly ascribed to Shankaracharya and he was entirely ignorant of Sri Chakra. It is probable that Vidyaranya who is regarded as a teacher in Shankaracharya’s line was proficient in the Sri Chakra cult. Associated with the founding of Vijayanagara Empire and with two pontificates, Sringeri and Kanchipuram he was a great spiritual, social and political force in south India. It may be due to his influence that the Sri Vidya cult spread in this part of the country.138
Sri Vidya cult belongs to Vaishnava Tantra
According to Lalan Prasad Singh, Sri is the consort of Vishnu and Sri Chakra is the abode of Vishnu, hence Sri Vidya cult belongs to the Vaishnava Tantra and not Shakta Tantra. Also according to him the Saundaryalahari is a devotional hymn in praise of Sri Chakra and is the canonical literature of Tantric Vaishnavism.139
The Cult of Yogini
The word Yogini has several meanings like a female devotee, sorceress or witch, fairy, attendants of Durga, a name of Durga and the female counterpart of a Yogi.140 In some texts the term Yogini is used to denote minor goddesses who are described either as companions or attendants of the Goddess.141 The names of the 64 Yoginis contained in the Puranic list suggests that in certain traditions the Yoginis were regarded as varying aspects of the great Goddess who through those Yoginis manifested the totality of her presence.142 An important tradition derives the 64 Yoginis in groups of eight from the Ashta Matrakas or eight mothers. From very early times we know that Sapta Matrakas or seven mothers (namely Brahmi, Maheshvari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Aindri and Narasimhi) as an independent group of goddesses later expanded to eight, nine or sixteen were popularly worshipped all over India.143 The main goal in the worship of Yoginis was to obtain a wide variety of occult powers.144 These powers were achieved through a series of rites and practices known collectively as Mahayaga.145
According to Kaulajnananirnaya, Matsyendranatha the first of the Natha gurus was responsible for introducing the Yogini cult among the Kaulas. Matsyendranatha must have belonged to a date prior to 900 A.D.146 and archaeological and textual evidence point to the emergence of the Yogini cult to around 9th century A.D.147 The cult at one time extended its influence over large portion of India though the existing temples of the Yoginis are found mainly in Orissa and central India.148 A Yogini temple is a simple circular enclosure with no roof or a sanctum sanctorum. Within the enclosure and placed in niches in its circular walls are a series of female images generally 64 in number with beautiful bodies but often with non-human heads. These shrines are referred as Chaunsat (sixty four) Yogini temples.149
Genesis of the Yoginis
The origins of the worship of Yoginis can be traced to the worship of village goddesses called grama devatas. In the villages of India each grama devata presides over the welfare of her village. These village goddesses seem to have been gradually transformed and consolidated into potent numerical grouping of 64 acquiring thereby a totally different character. It was tantrism that elevated these local deities and gave them a new form and vigour as a group of goddesses who could bestow magical powers on their worshippers. The philosophy and rituals of these deities were brought together under the heading Tantra and thus given legitimacy in later Hinduism.150 Even today in the daily worship of Devi Kamakhya in the temple of Kamakhya in Assam, the names of the 64 Yoginis are recited.151
Tantric method of Worship
Tantras are essentially sadhana shastras. Sadhana be it spiritual or otherwise is that which produces siddhi or result sought for. The term sadhana comes from the root ‘sadha’ that is to exert, to strive and sadhana is therefore striving, practice, discipline, worship in order to obtain fruits thereof. In religious context it means spiritual advancement with its results of happiness either in this world or in heaven and liberation or moksha, which is free from cyclic orders of karma and rebirth.152
Tantric sadhana consists of two parts ritual worship (puja) and meditation (yoga). Both are of equal importance to every tantric. Even the siddha or avadhuta recognized to be so highly spiritual that he can afford to disregard rules applicable to ordinary tantrics continues to perform his daily puja along with his yogic practices.153
Types of Sadhakas (adepts)
The Tantras have classified mankind according to their pravrittih or bhava, that is natural aptitudes and dispositions. According to Tantras these tendencies, dispositions and reactions to specific situations, environment and circumstances are the products of our past deeds in previous births and rebirths. Tantra places special emphasis on bhava suddhi or citta suddhi. Purification of mind, body, intellect and emotion is essential and indispensable for spiritual progress and such purification is to be attained by the specific sadhana known in Tantra as Bhuta Suddhi. Thus Tantra has classified mankind under three broad heads according to the pravrittih of the individuals, namely
Pashu or man with animal disposition
Vira or man with heroic disposition and
Divya or man with divine disposition154
Seven Acharas
Closely associated with the bhavas, the Tantras have enjoined seven acharas or stages. An aspirant must rise step by step through the different acharas of self-realization till he reaches the seventh or the highest stage of ‘Life Divine’. The seven acharas mentioned in the Kularnava Tantra are Vedachara, Vaishnavachara, Shaivachara, Dakshinachara, Vamachara, Siddhantachara and Kaulachara.155
In the first stage cleanliness of the body and mind is cultivated. The second stage is that of devotion (bhakti). The third stage is that of knowledge (jnana). Dakshina which is the fourth stage is that in which the gains acquired in the preceding three stages are consolidated. This is followed by Vama which is the stage of renunciation. The sixth stage namely Siddhanta is that in which the aspirant comes to the definite conclusion after deliberate consideration as to the relative merits of the paths of enjoyment and that of renunciation. By pursuing the pursuing the path of renunciation the aspirant reaches the final stage of Kaula. This is the stage in which Kula or Brahman becomes a reality to him.
The first three of these seven; namely Veda, Vaishnava and Shaiva belongs to the pashubhava, Dakshina and Vama belong to the virabhava and the last two belongs to divyabhava.156
S.K.Ramachandra Rao gives a different interpretation to the seven acharas. According to him -
Vedachara prescribes non-violent Vedic rites, on contemplation of the divinities in one’s body and on the repetition of the seed syllable ‘Aim’- all these being performed only in day time.
The Vaishnavachara is an extension of the first one, but relying to a greater extent on the sacred mythology contained in the puranas, advocating the observance of vratas (like fasting, vegetarian diet, celibacy, avocation that is free from violence, restraint in speech, etc.), worship of personal gods (ishta devata, mostly Vishnu) during day time and repetition of sacred formulae (japa) during nights.
The Shaivachara is likewise an extension of the Vedachara, with a sectarian variation relying on the smrtis as well as on Puranas which glorify Shiva; it advocates the observance of vratas and worship of personal gods (mostly male).
The Dakshinachara popular in the southern region of the country, accepts female forms of divinities (Bhagavati) but conducts worship in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedachara. It permits worship in the night in cemeteries, on the banks of rivers, but prohibits the use of liquor, meat, etc. and no sexual rites are allowed in any manner.
In the Vamachara the female form of divinity is worshipped with the five makaras (wine, meat, fish, sexual union and parched grains) in the dead of the night and in communities of initiated male and female devotees.
The Siddantachara adopts the Shaivite philosophy and while the usual tantric rite are performed, great importance is attached to Bhairava (terrible form of Shiva) the form which the devotees seek to assume.
The Kaulachara while incorporating the details of Vamachara defies all rules and restrictions pertaining even to the sectarian rites. There is nothing that is barred for the devotee here: no place, no time and no conduct.
While votaries of the Vedic tradition hold the Vedachara as excellent and the Kaulachara as the least, the followers of Kaula sect hold the Kaulachara as the most excellent and the Vaishnavachara the least meritorious and is silent about Vedachara.157
Puja Sadhana
The importance of puja cannot be exaggerated. From the time of his initiation till the end of his life, every tantric is bound by the duty of performing his daily puja. Tantrics divide their ritual practices into three groups, nitya, naimittika and kamya. Nitya covers the group of rites regarded as being compulsory for a tantric to perform every day. Naimittika rites are observed on particular occasions and kamya rites are performed to fulfill a special wish or to avert a great misfortune.158
In nitya puja performances of ritual practices include both outward and inner worship (bahya and antara puja). This include reading shastras, practicing austerities (tapasya), ratiocination of the bija mantra (japa), recitation of the hymns (stotra patana), purification of both body and mind (bhutasuddhi and cittasuddhi), installation of vital energy to the deity (pranapratisthana),159 worship of yantra, mandala, performing of nyasa, mudra and pancha makaras.
Diksha
The Tantra is obviously not attractive to the common man as it involves extraordinary effort and possession of attitudes which is different from and sometimes contrary to those which are normally held. Hence Tantrik practices are revealed only to the really serious. Thus initiation (diksha) is made an indispensable prerequisite for Tantrik practices. The importance of a teacher in the Tantra is very great and a text says that there can be no salvation without initiation and there can be no initiation without a teacher. The expression diksha is a compound of two ideas; di means ‘to give’ or ‘to endow’ divine qualities and ksha means ‘to destroy’ or ‘to remove’ the sins and obstructions thereby freeing the individual from phenomenal fetters. Diksha is a personal transmission of unseen but enormous power from the teacher to the pupil as effectively as possible and as confidentially as feasible.160 Diksha or initiation has been considered to be the secret part of Tantra sadhana. The tantric mysteries are revealed only to the initiates. According to Sharada Tilaka initiation is that which gives spiritual knowledge (divya jnana) and brings the annihilation of baser propensities (papa). When a sadhaka takes initiation he comes to know the art of stopping further increase of samskaras. This art is known as Madhu Vidya. Diksha burns out all karmas, severs the bond of maya and brings the attainment of spiritual knowledge. Through initiation the Guru imparts the practical lesson to make use of mantra and yantra. Mantra is imparted during initiation and mantra which has not been received from a guru bears no fruit. Kularnava Tantra speaks of three kinds of diksha.
Sparsha Diksha- initiation by touch,
Drka Diksha- initiation by sight and
Manasa Diksha- initiation by thought.161
Mantra
A mantra is any combination of letters believed to be of divine origin and used in order to evoke divine powers and to realize a communion of man with the divine source and essence of the universe.162 The expression ‘mantra’ is derived from two Sanskrit roots, man signifying ‘to reflect’ and rati signifying ‘to protect’. The significance is that the mantra is a sacred word or formula that is capable of protecting the person that thinks of it or utters it. The very process of thinking or uttering is said to generate a saving power: it protects the person from existing or possible errors, calamities and misadventures.163 Mantras are grouped into three varieties;
Male- when they end with words such as ‘hum’, ‘phat’ and ‘vashat’.
Female- when they end with words such as ‘vaushat’ and ‘svaha’ and
Neutral- when they end with words with ‘namah’.
Male mantras are especially employed in magical rites, in the worship of ferocious divinities including goddesses and in sorcery. They are said to be vigorous and quick in effect but their spiritual value is minimal. The female mantras find use in enterprises with concrete benefits as objectives and the neutral mantras have spiritual progress as their goal.
Mantras are also classified on the basis of the number of syllables they contain. If there is a single syllable it is called pinda mantra, if there are two syllables it is called kartari. If the number of syllables ranges from three to nine it is called bija mantra and if the number of syllables exceeds nine but is not more than twenty it is called mantra. If the syllables are more than 20 the mantra becomes a mala mantra (string mantra).164 The repetition of a mantra is known as japa and there are three varieties of japa.
Vachika (uttered)- audible to others
Upamsu (muttered)- audible to oneself only and
Manasa (thought)- in entire silence, visualizing the deity of the mantras.165
Mantra sadhana is the main theme of Tantra. It is the life force of Tantrik cult. With the help of mantra a sadhaka attunes his individual existence with cosmic vibration and gets drenched in the divine effulgence. He becomes one with the divine being after losing his individuality. The realization of the non-dualistic existence is the main aim of mantra sadhana.166
Yantra
Yantra is a geometrical diagram with abstract symbols inscribed on a flat surface like palm leaf, paper, etched on a metal sheet or stone slab and is an indispensible constituent of tantric sadhana.167
The Sanskrit word Yantra derives from the root Yam meaning to sustain, hold or support the energy inherent in a particular element, object or concept. The yantra is a sacred enclosure, a dwelling or receptacle of Ishtadevata (the chosen deity) and a substitute for an anthropomorphic image of the deity. A deity’s yantra bear no resemblance to the iconographic image and is its transform (para rupa), its abstract translation.168
All yantras are inscribed with mantras and the most important mantra associated with the yantra is generally inscribed in the center of the yantra, while other mantric letters are arranged in the spaces formed by the intersection of lines, either round the circle or on the lotus petals or on the outer square band of the yantra. These mantric letters are condensed with energy and are seen as vested with a spiritual power beyond human comprehension. Pronounced correctly, with the correct rhythm, intonation and mental attitude, a mantra becomes the soul of the yantra and a vitalizing force within the mind of the seeker.169
Pranapratisthana ceremony
In order to be accessible for worship, a yantra has to be infused with the vital force (prana) and this ritual is called pranapratisthana. The transfer of power to the yantra is achieved in several ways but one of the chief methods is through the breathing technique (pranayama). While the adept is in complete concentration, the devata is exhaled by pranic transmission through the right nostril as he chants an appropriate mantra. The breadth is exhaled over a red flower which he holds in his hand. The divine essence is thus communicated through the adept’s body on the flower. He then places the flower at the centre of the yantra which begins to be permeated with the spark of consciousness. Another method of infusing vital force into the yantra is by the means of symbolic finger gestures (Avahana mudra). The adept exhales his breadth on to the appropriate finger positions which he then slowly lets his closed hands descend on the yantra. Some ritual manuals also suggest a ceremony where the yantra is washed with several liquids which is symbolically suggestive of cleansing away impurities.170
After consecrating the yantra by means of pranapratisthana, the adept begins his meditation by fixing his attention (concentration) on the yantra’s periphery and finally proceeds towards the center called bindu.171
Visarjana ceremony
At the end of the puja the yantra is symbolically forsaken in a rite known as visarjana- the dissolution of the yantra. Using a finger gesture (generally yoni mudra) and pronouncing the appropriate mantra the adept dismisses the deity contained in the yantra. The deity is then brought back into the adept’s heart from where it was first installed into the yantra either by the adept’s inhaling his breadth or smelling the flower through which the deity was first installed during the pranapratisthana ceremony.172
Types of Yantra
There are three types of yantras
Raksha yantras- yantras for magical purposes generally called protective yantras
Pujana yantras or Devata yantras- yantras for actualizing divinites and
Dhyana yantras- yantras that facilitate meditation
Raksha yantras are of two types, beneficent ones (soumya or aghora) and the malevolent ones (krura or ghora). The former kind of yantras are employed to ward off evil, cure disease, bring about peace of mind, recover lost property, help growth of children, facilitate trade or agriculture, gain celebrity and so on. The latter kind of yantras are meant to kill the enemy or harm him in occult fashion, to confound his mind and drive him mad, to invoke misfortune on a household and so on.173
The devata yantras are also magical yantras but are deity specific and to be effective they entail the performance of certain appropriate worship rituals. Only when they are properly attended upon do they acquire potency. In these yantras the deities are often represented by the seed syllable (bija akshara) appropriate to the deity inscribed at the central point (bindu). The mantra that is specific to the deity is supposed to be powerful and if properly communicated and assiduously recited transforms the phenomenal consciousness of the devotee into deity consciousness. The devata yantras are meant to achieve all mundane and spiritual aspiration, bring prosperity to the family and eliminate obstacles on the path of spiritual progress.174
The Dhyana yantras are devices for concentrating the mind, focusing attention and channelizing consciousness. Meditation on these yantras involves mantras and mudras. The dhyana yantra represents the field of consciousness and the mantra as the vocalized formula for repetition represents the expressive faculty of consciousness (vac) and mudra as physical posture and gesture represents the material vehicle in which the consciousness is embodied and through which it works. When a deity is also employed to preside over the yantra it is as a unifying agent.175
Mandala
Mandala is defined as ‘that which gathers the essential details’. Mandala denotes an act of concentration of all the significant details of the worlds, or of a doctrine, of one’s own constitution or of his own mind. It is also the place where such concentration is facilitated. As an act of concentration it gathers up the inner energies and as a place of concentration it brings together the outer energies.176
In tantric traditions the term mandala often refers to a space with a special structure that is enclosed and delimited by a circumferential line and into which a deity or deities are invited by means of mantras. This space is often a circle, but may also appear as a square, triangle or another shape. The various shapes and structures of mandalas are based on the traditions of the different schools, ritual applications, the deities worshipped and the practitioner’s qualifications, and goals. Mandalas are prepared from various materials including coloured powders, precious stones, fruits and leaves and fragrant substances.177
Mandalas are used in ceremonial sequences like consecrating the place of worship, placement of the ritual jar or kalasha, placement of the lamp symbolizing god or goddess, preparing the ground for making food offerings or naivedya, in the initiatory rites (diksha vidhi) and as aids in meditations. The folk design known as rangoli which has now turned out to be a purely decorative art was originally meant as a protective device; to protect the house from evil influences, to protect the place where an auspicious function is to take place from possible harm, to sanctify the ground on which worship is conducted.178
The ritual pertaining to the mandala which activate the hidden forces both within the external diagram and in the devotee’s constitution involve the proper positioning of the tutelary deities (kula devatas) captains (nayika), aids (yogini) and guards (mudra devatas). Their locations are determined according to the tantric prescriptions and the purpose for which the mandala is used. The placement of the retinue divinities is sometimes accomplished by inscribing appropriate letters of the alphabet in different areas of the mandala. The Sanskrit alphabet is regarded as the vocal epitome of the entire universe and each letter is transformed into energy when introduced into the mandala.179
Whether it is called a Chakra, Mandala or Yantra, the instrument is a sphere of influence, a consecrated ground, an arena for the play of thoughts, feelings and forces both inside the devotee and outside him. It is an instrument that is employed to activate energies, stimulate thoughts, harmonize feelings and coordinate inner and outer forces. It is rightly described as a psycho cosmogram.180
Differences between a Yantra and a Mandala
A Mandala is used in the case of any devata whereas a yantra is appropriate to a specific devata. Mandala represents the microcosm and accommodates a pantheon of deities who are positioned in it according to rank. A yantra on the other land is the domain of a single deity but may include that deity’s retinue.
Mandalas are used in secret as well as public ceremonies whereas yantras have more restricted use
Mandalas are usually objects for temporary ritual use. The deities are invoked into them and dismissed at the end of the ritual. Yantras on the other hand are made of permanent material in which a deity has been invoked and usually kept in the temple or shrine for continued worship. But it must be added that many yantras are made for temporary use like the mandala.
In yantras mantras are inscribed at the time of manufacturing it while mandalas are first constructed and only later deities are invoked into them with mantras. However later texts enjoin that yantras be first prepared and then infused with life in a special ritual called pranapratisthana with the help of mantras
A general characteristic of yantra’s is that they are small in size. In contrast mandala vary in size and can be large enough to allow for priest or initiands to enter them through doors and walk around in them; for example during an initiation ceremony (diksha vidhi)
With the exception of yantras installed permanently for worship in temples and mathas, yantras are generally mobile whereas mandalas are not.
While mandalas can employ different colour schemes, the use of colour is less common if not irrelevant in the case of most yantras.
While pictorial representation of deities can appear in mandalas, such images are generally not found in yantras.181
Mudra
Mudra is another characteristic item in Tantrik ritual. The word mudra has several meanings, four of which have a bearing on Tantrik practices.
It means a posture in yogic practices in which the whole body plays a part.
It also means the symbolic or mystic intertwining of the fingers and hands as part of religious worship.
Mudra is also the fourth of the five makaras and means various kinds of grains mixed with ghee or other ingredient or parched grains.
A fourth meaning of mudra is the woman with whom a Tantrik yogi associates himself.
According to Kularnava the word mudra is derived from ‘mud’ which means delight or pleasure. These mudras (ritual finger and hand poses) should be shown (in worship) as they give delight to the gods and make their minds melt (with compassion for the worshippers).182
Mudras (hand poses) according to Pujaprakasha are to be made in worship at the time of japa, dhyana (contemplation) and when starting on kamya rites (performed for securing some desired objects) and that they tend to bring the deity worshipped near to the worshipper. The Nityacarapaddhati says that mudra is so called because it gives delight to the gods and also puts to flight asuras (evil beings).183
Raghavabhatta states that the fingers from the thumb to the small finger are identified with the five elements namely akasha (sky or ether), wind, fire, water and earth and that their contact with each other tends to make the deity favourable and delighted and induces the deity to be present at the worship, and that various appropriate mudras are to be employed in worship at the time japa, in meditation and in all rites performed for securing some desired objects or benefits. It was supposed that mudras helped in enhancing concentration on the part of the worshipper.184
There is a great divergence among the tantras, puranas and yoga works on the number, names and definitions of mudras. The Sharadatilaka names nine mudras while the Vishnusamhita says that mudras are innumerable and names about 30. The Jnanarnave mentions at least 19 mudras and Jayakhyasamhita about 58 mudras.185 The Kalikapurana states that there are 108 mudras, 55 for general worship and 53 on special occasions such as collecting materials, drama and acting.186
The tantric works provide that mudras should be practiced secretly under cover of a garment and not in the presence of many people and should not be announced to another as otherwise they become fruitless.187
It is likely that the mudras in the Hindu and Buddhist tantric works are based on the poses that were evolved in ancient Indian dance and drama and we find their earliest extant description in Bharata natyasastra and that also in later medieval works on dramaturgy such as the Abhinayadarpana.188
Nyasa
One of the important items in the tantric ritual and worship is Nyasa which means mentally invoking a god or gods, mantras and holy texts to come to occupy certain parts of the body in order to render the body a pure and fit receptacle for worship and meditation. The word Nyasa literally means ‘placing or depositing in or on’ and it is done by touching the chest and other limbs with the tips of the fingers and the palm of the right hand accompanied by mantras. There are several kinds of nyasa such as hamsanyasa, pranavanyasa, matrkanyasa, karanyasa, mantranyasa, anganyasa, pithanyasa, etc.189 The tantric concept of nyasa became popular in other forms of Indian religious systems as well and we have Puranic references to this practices. The medieval digests on the Dharamasastras also show that nyasa was taken over from Tantrik works in the puranas and other texts for the rites of the orthodox peoples.190
The aim of nyasa is to stimulate the nerve centre and consequently equitable distribution of powers (shaktis) so that the spiritual adepts (sadhakas) by shaking off the discordant notes and distracting tendencies of the mind can keep the bodily centres steady.191
Pancha Makaras
For the worship of Shakti the panchamakara or panchatattva are declared to be essential. According to Mahanirvana without panchatattva in one form or another Sakti puja cannot be performed. The reason of this is that those who worship Sakti worship divinity as creatrix and in the form of the universe. If she appears as and in natural function, she must be worshipped there with otherwise as the Tantra cited says worship is fruitless. The mother of the universe must be worshipped with these five elements namely wine, meat, fish, gram and woman or their substitutes. By their use the universe (Jagad Brahmanda) itself is used as the article of worship. The Mahanirvana says that wine which gives joy and dispels the sorrow of men is fire, flesh which nourishes and increase the strength of mind and body is air, fish which increases generative power is water, cereals grown on earth and which are the basis of life are earth and sexual union which is the root of the world and the origin of all creation is ether.192
Generally it is thought that in vamachara, woman play an important role. But this is only partially true in the case of those sadhakas who worship with Shakti according to vamachara rites. But among the vamacharis there are even brahmacharis, sadhakas and followers of the Nathas who never indulge in this type of Shakti worship. The Kalamukhas and the Kalavisas worship the kumaris only up to the age of nine and the Brahma Kaulas refrain even from wine and meat. All these means that this kind of worship is restricted to one section of the vamacharis namely the vira class while the pashu and divya classes are prohibited from performing it. There are still further restrictions that a sadhaka should perform this worship with his own wife (svakiya Sakti) and only in the case when there is no wife he may take some other Sakti for the purpose of ritual worship only.193
According to Tantrics the performance of the panchatattva sadhana helps one attain siddhi. The panchatattva sadhana are of various types namely pratyaksha (real type), Anukalpa (substitution type) and Divya (esoteric type). In the anukalpa type gingers is substituted for meat and coconut water for wine and in the Divya type materials are substituted by symbols. Only in the Pratyaksha type real objects are used and even here there are injunction against unrestrained indulgence of flesh, wine and woman.194
A sadhaka is to practice these rites for gaining the highest object namely the unification with Shiva or God leading to emancipation. The expression panchamakaras derive its name from the initial letters of the ingredients, madya (wine), mamsa (meat), matsya (fish), mudra (cereals) and mithuna (coitus).195
Thought out worldly these rites appear much abhorrent, there is a great esoteric meaning behind these. All these wine, meat, fish and woman are objects of temptation and it is very difficult to overcome them. Worship of a young damsel as a goddess and taking of wine for the purpose of concentrating his mind on the object of devotion only is something very difficult and requires the training of mind. The sadhaka has to relinquish his own desire and self and convert the various pursuits of enjoyment into instruments of spiritual discipline. The esoteric meaning of the five makaras is like this-
Madya- the nectrine stream that issues from the cavity of brain is called madya or wine
Mamsa- by this term we mean the control of speech which is only possible in case of the yogis
Matsya- by fish we mean the system of respiration, drawn in and sent out. So the worshipper of fish means one who has controlled his vital breaths, this is called pranayama
Mudra- it means the residing place of the soul in the body and one who acquires the knowledge of this charming soul is the worshipper of mudra
Maithuna- the most important of all these is the practice of maithuna. It is observed-‘cohabitation is at the root of creation, preservation and destruction; it is regarded as a great principle in scriptures and it achieves all ends and confers the most difficult knowledge of Brahman. The meaning of maithuna here is the recitation of various attributes of God or unification with God.
Thus we can say that this panchamakara worship is not at all corrupt in spirit as it is supposed to be. The aims are very high and these are various instruments of spiritual discipline.196
Chakra Puja
Worship with the panchatattva generally takes place when pupils of the same guru parampara gather together in a close and small circle, each accompanied by his female partner called shakti. The lord of the chakra (chakresvara or convener) presides with his shakti in the center. The convener conducts the nitya puja including a much simpler form of suvasini puja or duti puja (worship of a woman). Each member of the group performs the rite of purifying the tattvas by drinking a little alcoholic drink and eating the cooked meat and fish. In this ritual the worshipper must purify wine, fish and flesh before he dedicates them to the deity according to prescribed rituals accompanied with proper mantras. The rest of the puja follows the same pattern as in suvasini puja. After all the rites have been completed and the food has been eaten sexual acts takes place.
Chakra Puja are of different types like Deva Chakra, Raja Chakra, Veera Chakra, Bhairavi Chakra, etc. where female agents are worshipped as the great mother by the devotee unruffled by passions and temptation of meat of birds or beasts which is nothing but sacrificing of attachment and animality. Chakra Puja is a special mode of yoga sadhana undertaken only on special occasions in which only the highly spiritually advanced persons can take part. Persons who have complete self-control and mastery over senses may gather together in a chakra and worship the great goddess in the midst of the objects of great temptations such as wine, women, etc., a fiery ordeal for a worshipper which the Tantra forbid for men of animal proclivities.197
Shava sadhana or corpse ritual
A peculiar type of Tantric ritual is shava sadhana or corpse ritual. Only a Vira type sadhaka is entitled to perform this rite. On a selected new moon day a sadhaka acquires in a cemetery a fresh dead body which is disease free and one who has died of an accident. The corpse is washed and sanctified with mantras, mudras and nyasa. The sadhaka then sits on the corpse and pours alcoholic drinks into the corpse mouth and feeds it with cooked meat. According to Vira Cudamani, the rituals also involves offering of wine and food to the 64 Yoginis and culminates with copulation performed by the sadhaka and his female partner over the corpse. It is said that the sadhaka will experience terrifying sights and sounds during the course of the rite and if he is not frightened by all these, he will have mantrasiddi- that is command over every aspect of life.198
Yoga Sadhana
The second part of tantric sadhana is yoga. Yoga is generally classified into four categories, mantra yoga, hatha yoga, laya yoga and raja yoga. Each of these forms has eight subservient called eight limbs or astanga which are yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratiharya, dharana, dhayana and samadhi. The first five are known as exterior methods (bahiranga), chiefly concerned with the body and the last three are inner method (antaranga) employed for the development of the mind.199
Mantra yoga is the simplest form of yoga. This yoga is helpful for an aspirant to gain control over his mind by uttering the mantras as imparted by his guru and by concentrating on images of gods, yantras, mandalas, emblems, etc.
Human mind is controlled by prana. When the breadth is kept under control the outward movement of the mind comes to an end. In this connection Hatha yoga prescribes a number of asanas, mudras and pranayama; by practicing which an aspirant can acquire control of his mind and body.
Laya yoga is a higher form of Hatha yoga. It is specially connected with the functioning of Kundalini and that is why the tantras lay great emphasis on this form of yoga. Laya yoga corresponds to the fifth, sixth and seventh stages of the astanga yoga, namely pratyahara, dharana and dhyana. By practicing Laya yoga, an aspirant rouses his Kundalini and finds his prana merged into vishwa prana.
Raja yoga is the fourth stage in yoga and corresponds to Samadhi as mentioned in astanga yoga. In this state the sadhaka loses his own entity in paramatma which he finds pervading the universe. It is the highest form of yoga through which nirvikalpa Samadhi is attained.200
Kundalini Yoga
The Sanskrit word Kundalini means ‘coiled-up’. The coiled Kundalini is the female energy existing in latent form in every human being. It is the infinitesimal part of the cosmic energy (Shakti) which lies asleep in the individual muladhara. The object of the tantric practice of Kundalini yoga is to awaken her and bring her up to the point just above the top of the susumna called the sahasrara chakra where the cosmic energy resides. By merging her with the cosmic energy the individual is able to obtain spiritual release from the bondage of this world and everything worldly.201
The fundamental principle of the tantra shastra is that man is a microcosm (kshudra brahmanda) whatever exists in the outer universe exist in him. All the tattvas and the world are within him and so are the supreme Shiva and Shakti.202 Hence the yogin’s spine is compared to Meru, the cosmic central mountain and is called brahmadanda (Brahma’s stick). Thus the centre of the yogin’s mystic body is the centre of the world. The Susumna is inside it hollow like a bamboo. In the susumna exists the entire manifest world in concentrated form. Ranged vertically along it are the six centres called wheels (chakras) each of which is conceived as a stylized lotus inhabited by a deity and containing the constituents of both physical and sonic creation.203
The six chakras that lie along the axis of the spine are consciousness potentials and are to be understood as situated not in the gross body but in the subtle or etheric body. These chakras are-
Muladhara- situated at the base of the spine
Svadhisthana- situated around the prostatic plexus (near the generative organ
Manipura- situated around the navel
Anahata- situated near the heart
Visuddha- situated behind the throat and
Ajna- situated between the eyebrows
Situated four fingers breadth above the top of the head is the Sahasrara the transcendent chakra. The Sahasrara chakra is said to be the region of Shiva, pure consciousness while the Muladhara chakra is the seat of Shakti whose form here is Kundalini. Through certain prescribed discipline the Kundalini Shakti rises through the psychic centres (six chakras mentioned above) until it reaches its full flowering that is fusion with the Absolute in Sahasrara as Kula Kundalini, generally bliss consciousness (Ananda) from the union of Shiva-Shakti.204
The awakening of the Kundalini power is a physic psycho spiritual process which has the following three aspects-
Generate an intense desire to attain cosmic consciousness
Chanting a mantra to generate vibrations of appropriate wavelength to awaken the Kundalini to which she is attuned and send her upward to penetrate the chakra one by one and
Meditation upon a yantra to attain an inner visualization of the process to guide it through its successive stages.205
Occult powers through Tantric sadhana
A sadhaka acquires siddhis or miraculous powers through tantric sadhana; especially when the Kundalini is awakened. Some of these siddhis are living without food, duplicating one’s body, rising from the dead, gaining knowledge of the heavenly worlds, of planets, stars and the whole cosmos.206 The Tantric text Prapancasara enumerates eight siddhis namely-
Anima- that is power of making one’s body as minute as an atom
Garima- power of increasing the weight of one’s body
Mahima- power to magnify one’s body
Laghima- power to levitate one’s body
Ishitwa- sovereignty over all things
Vishitwa- power of charming
Prapti- power of getting anything
Prakamya- non obstruction of desire
and states that one who is endowed with these eight siddhis is a liberated soul.207 Another text Sadhanamala mentions eight siddhis like-
Khadga- a sword sanctified by spells for success in the battle field
Anjana- collyrium which when applied to the eyes enables one to see buried things.
Padalepa- ointment applied to the feet enabling one to move anywhere unnoticed
Antardhana- to be invisible
Rasarasayana- transforming baser metal into gold and preparing the drug of immortality
Khecara- to fly in the sky
Bhucara- going swiftly anywhere
Patalasiddhi- diving underneath the earth
The text also mentions that by means of certain mantras the wealth of Kubera can be appropriated and gods like Hari, Indra, Brahma and others and also apsaras or heavenly damsels can be utilized as servants. Even for defeating opponents in public discussions the mantras are efficacious.208
Lakshmidhara in his commentary on the Saundaryalahari throws light on the content of 64 Tantras which in general deal with way leading to the acquisition of certain supernormal powers or siddhis. For instance Mahamaya Tantra and Shambara Tantra describes the manner in which illusory world is created by the power of Maya Shakti which is designated as Mohini Vidya. The Yoginijala Shambara Tantra describes the way to make one tattva appear as the other tattva. For instance prithvitattva appear as jalatattva or vice versa. Siddhi Bhairava Tantra, Kankala Bhairava Tantra, Kala Bhairava Tantra, etc. describes the way to acquisition of worldly treasure (nidhi vidya). There is a group of eight Yamala Tantra which deal with Kaya siddhi that is making the physical body develop super human powers.209 It is said that Ramakrishna Paramahamsa had acquired occult powers through practice of tantric sadhana. He had perfected all the 64 tantric sadhanas belonging to Vishnukranta group within two years.210
Victor M. Fic- The Tantras- Its Origin, Theories, Art and Diffusion from India to Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, China, Japan and Indonesia, Abhinav Publications, 2003, pp: 23,24
Lalan Prasad Singh- Tantra- Its Mystic and Scientific Basis, Concept Publishing Company Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2010, p.6
Sures Chandra Banerji- The Cultural Glory of Ancient India, D.K.Printworld (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 2000, pp: 112,113
D.N.Bose & Hiralal Haldar- Tantras – Their Philosophy and Occult Secrets, Firma KLM Private Ltd, Calcutta, 1981,p.20
Gaurinath Sastri, A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publisher Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, p.47
N.N.Battacharyya- History of the Tantric Religion, Manohar, 2005, p.20
P.V.Kane –History of Dharmashastra, Vol V, part –II, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1962, p.1049
Ibid, p.1057
Prabuddha Bharata, vol-115, no.6, June 2010, p.373
Kamalakar Mishra- Kashmir Shaivism- The Central Philosophy of Tantrism, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, 1999, p.36
Prabuddha Bharata- Op.cit, pp:372,373
Nando Lall Kundu- Constructive Philosophy of India, Vol-II (Tantra), Published by Nando Lall Kundu, Calcutta, p.24
Ibid, p.31
Gaurinath Sastri- Op.cit, p.47
Manoranjan Basu- Tantras- A General Study, Published by Shrimati Mira Basu, Calcutta, 1976, p.1
Prabuddha Bharata- Op.cit, pp:372,373
P.V.Kane- Op.cit, p.1033
Ibid, pp:1039,1040
Ibid, p.1038
Earnest A Payne- The Shaktas: An Introduction and Comparative Study, Cosmos Publication, New Delhi, 2004, pp:52,53
Kamalakar Mishra- Op.cit, p.14
Lalan Prasad Singh- Op.cit, p.8
D.N.Bose & Hiralal Haldar- Op.cit, pp:26-29
Babu Dhanapati Banerji- The Evolution of Rudra or Mahesha in Hinduism, QJMS, Vol-X, April 1920, No.3, pp:221,222
Ibid
Manoranjan Basu- Op.cit, p.25
Ramakant Sharma Angiras- Trilogy of Tantra, Natraj Publishing House, Karnal, Haryana, 1989,p.3
Victor M. Fic- Op.cit, p.27
Lalan Prasad Singh- Op.cit, p.43
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- Tantra Mantra Yantra, The Tantra Psychology, Sri Satguru Publication, New Delhi, 2008, p.57
Studies on the Tantras- Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta, 1989, p.10
Subodh Kapoor- Short Introduction to Shakta Philosophy, Cosmo Publication, New Delhi, 2008, p.68
Sures Chandra Banerji- The Cultural Glory of Ancient India, D.K.Printworld (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 2000, p.121 and P.V.Kane-Op.cit, p.1077
Victor M. Fic- Op.cit, p.42
S.C.Banerji- A Companion to Tantra, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, p13
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- Tantra Mantra Yantra, The Tantra Psychology, p.19
S.S.Suryanarayana Sastri- The Sivadvaita of Srikantha, University of Madras, 1930, p.1
Surendranath Dasgupta- History of Indian Philosophy, vol- III, Cambridge University Press, 1952, pp: 19,20
S.S.Suryanarayana Sastri- Op.cit, p.1
Mark S.G. Dyczkowski- The Canon of the Shaivagama and the Kubjika Tantras of the Western Kaula Tradition, Motilal Banarasidass, New Delhi, 1989, p.9
Earnest A Payne- Op.cit, pp:50,51
P.V.Kane- Op.cit, p.1083
S.S.Suryanarayana Sastri- Op.cit, pp:5,7,8
Vishwa Nath Drabu- A Study in the Socio Economic Ideas and Institutions of Kashmir (200 B.C. - A.D.700), Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1990, p.233
Lalan Prasad Singh- Op.cit, p.12
Kamalakar Mishra- Op.cit, p.5
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- Tantra Mantra Yantra, The Tantra Psychology, p.12
Ibid, p.13
N.N.Battacharyya- Op.cit, pp:21-23
B.N.Luniya- Life and Culture in Ancient India, Lakshmi Narain Agarwal, Agra, pp:51,52
Lalan Prasad Singh- Op.cit, pp:2,3
S.Srikantha Sastri- Tantri Hieroglyphics, QJMS, vol-51, No.1, April 1960, p.11
S.C.Banerji- A Companion to Tantra, p.13
Lalan Prasad Singh- Op.cit, p.22
S.K.Ramachandra Rao-The Tantra of Sri Chakra, Sharada Prakashana, Bangalore, 1983, p.3
Sanjay Sonawani- Origins of the Vedic Religion And Indus ghaggar Civilization, Book Tango, 2015
Lalan Prasad Singh- Op.cit, p.23
R.C.Hazra- Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Abinas Press, Calcutta, 1940, pp:193,203,204
Ibid, p.260
Mark S.G. Dyczkowski- Op.cit, p.10
Surendranath Dasgupta- Op.cit, p.19
R.C.Hazra- Op.cit, pp:260-262
Mark S.G. Dyczkowski- Op.cit, p.8
Earnest A Payne- Op.cit, p.50
Lalan Prasad Singh- Op.cit, pp: 139,140
N.N.Battacharyya- Op.cit, p.43
N.N.Battacharyya- Op.cit, p.41 and Sures Chandra Banerji- Op.cit, p.123
Lalan Prasad Singh- Op.cit, pp: 11,12
P.V.Kane- Op.cit, p.1092
P.V.Kane- Op.cit, p.1092 and Sures Chandra Banerji- Op.cit, p.120
S.C.Banerji- A Companion to Tantra, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, 2007,p.13
Earnest A Payne- Op.cit, p.59
Sures Chandra Banerji- Op.cit, p.122
Ibid, pp:121,122
Sures Chandra Banerji- Op.cit, pp:122,123 and S.K.Ramachandra Rao- Sri Chakra, Sri Satguru Publications, New Delhi, 1989,p.1
Sures Chandra Banerji- Op.cit, p.121
T.Srinivasa Iyengar- Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Theosophical Publishing Society, Benaras and London, 1909, p.130
Ibid, pp:124,128
N.N.Battacharyya- History of the Tantric Religion, Manohar, 2005, p.51
S.C.Banerji- A Companion to Tantra, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, 2007,p.18
Ibid, p.19
Paramahamsa Prajnananda- Jnana Sankalini Tantra, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2006, 12
Teun Goudriaan & Sanjukta Gupta- Hindu Tantric and Sakta Literature, Publisher Otto Harrassowitz- Wiesbaden, 1981, p.118
Paramahamsa Prajnananda- Op.cit, p.12
Manoranjan Basu- Fundamental of the Philosophy of Tantras, Mira Basu Publishers, Calcutta, 1986, p.58
Ibid, p.59
P.T.Srinivasa Iyengar- Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Theosophical Publishing Society, Benares and London, 1909, p.174
Suniti Kumar Chatterji, Edited- The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol-V, The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta, 1978, p.109, see footnotes
Ibid, p.110, see footnotes
Deba Brata Sen Sharma- Studies in Tantra Yoga, Natraj Publishing House, Karnal, Haryana, 1985, pp:7,8
Ibid, pp: 8,9,10
N.N.Battacharyya- Op.cit, p.308
P.T.Srinivasa Iyengar- Op.cit, pp:138,139
K.Narayanaswami Iyer- Sri Vidya, part-II- Upasana, QJMS, 23 (2) 1932, pp:194,195
Deba Brata Sen Sharma, Edited- Matsyendra Samhita, part- I, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1994, p.15
Gaurinath Sastri, A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publisher Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, p.50
Chintaharan Chakravarti- Tantras, Studies on the Religion and Literature, Punthi Pustak, Calcutta, 1963, p.50
Lalan Prasad Singh- Tantra- Its Mystic and Scientific Basis, Concept Publishing Company Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2010, p.131
Kamalakar Mishra- Kashmir Shaivism- The Central Philosophy of Tantrism, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, 1999, pp:19,20
Victor M. Fic- The Tantras- Its Origin, Theories, Art and Diffusion from India to Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, China, Japan and Indonesia, Abhinav Publications, 2003, pp: 43-51
Ibid, pp:53,54
Suniti Kumar Chatterji, Op.cit, pp:233-243
P.T.Srinivasa Iyengar- Op.cit, p.147
Chintaharan Chakravarti- Op.cit, pp:50-52
Rama Ghose- Parameshwaragama, Shaiva Bharati Shodha Pratishthanam, Varanasi, 2004, p.xxii
Kamalakar Mishra- Op.cit, pp:46,47
Chintaharan Chakravarti- Op.cit, p.57
V.Varadachari- Agamas and South Indian Vaisnavism, M.Rangacharya Memorial Trust, Triplicane, Madras, 1982, p.74
Chintaharan Chakravarti- Op.cit, pp:55,56
Deba Brata Sen Sharma, Edited- Matsyendra Samhita, Op.cit, pp:3,4
Ibid, p.13
Ibid, pp:10,11
Chintaharan Chakravarti- Op.cit, pp:54,55
Ibid, pp:56,57
Deba Brata Sen Sharma, Edited- Matsyendra Samhita, Op.cit,p.12
D.C.Sircar, The Sakta Pithas, Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, pp:6,7; Bose & Haldar- Tantras- Their Philosophy and Occult Secrets, Firma KLM Private Ltd, Calcutta, 1981, p.24
D.C.Sircar- Op.cit, p.12; Bose & Haldar-Op.cit, pp:23,24
D.C.Sircar- Op.cit, p.14
Ibid, p.17
Ibid, p.19
Ibid, p.20
Ibid, p.25
S.K.Ramachandra Rao-The Tantra of Sri Chakra, Sharada Prakashana, Bangalore, 1983, p.vii
Bose & Haldar-Op.cit, p.194
N.N.Battacharyya- Op.cit, pp: 321-325
David R Kinsley- Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1998, pp:2,3
Ibid, p.14
Ibid, p.18
Ibid, p.20
Ibid, p.22
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- Sri Chakra, Sri Satguru Publications, New Delhi, 1989,p.1
S.K.Ramachandra Rao-The Tantra of Sri Chakra, Sharada Prakashana, Bangalore, 1983, p.vi, vii, viii, ix
S.Shankaranarayanan- Sri Chakra, Dipti Publications, Pondicherry,1979, pp:14,15,16
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- Sri Chakra- Op.cit, p.1
S.Shankaranarayanan—Op.cit, pp:9,10,12
Ibid, p.47
Ibid, pp:93,96,99,100
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- Sri Vidya Kosha, Sri Satguru Publications, New Delhi, 2000, pp:179,180
Lalan Prasad Singh- Op.cit, pp: 136,137.97
Vidya Dehijia- Yogini Cult and Temples- A Tantric Tradition, Published by National Museum, Janpath, New Delhi, 1986, p.11
Ibid, p.23
Ibid, p.22
Ibid, pp:27,28
Ibid, p.53
Ibid, p.56
Ibid, p.74
Ibid, p.67
Ibid, p.77
Ibid, p.ix
Ibid, pp:1,2
Ibid, p.78
Manoranjan Basu- Fundamental of the Philosophy of Tantras, Mira Basu Publishers, Calcutta, 1986, p.433
Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, Teun Goudriaan- Hindu Tantrism, Publishers, E.J.Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands, 1979, p.121
Nando Lall Kundu- Constructive Philosophy of India, vol- II (Tantra), Calcutta, pp:9,10
Ibid, pp:11,12
Studies on the Tantras- Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta, 1989, pp:59,60
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- The Tantra of Sri Chakra, Sharada Prakashana, Bangalore, 1983, pp:23-25
Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, Teun Goudriaan- Op.cit, pp:124,125
Manoranjan Basu- Op.cit, p.470
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- Tantra Mantra Yantra, The Tantra Psychology, Sri Satguru Publication, New Delhi, 2008, pp:48,49
Lalan Prasad Singh- Tantra- Its Mystic and Scientific Basis, Concept Publishing Company Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2010, pp:117-119
Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, Teun Goudriaan- Op.cit, p.101
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- Tantra Mantra Yantra, The Tantra Psychology, p.85
Ibid, pp:89,90
Ibid, pp:87,88
Lalan Prasad Singh- Op.cit, p.97
Madhu Khanna- Yantra- The Tantric Symbol of Cosmic Unity, Thames and Hudson, London, 1994, preface, p.10 and S.K.Ramachandra Rao- The Yantras, Sri Satguru Publication, New Delhi, 1988, p.29
Madhu Khanna- Op.cit, pp:11,12
Ibid, p.34
Ibid, pp:98-100
Ibid, p.108
Ibid, p.106
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- The Yantras, pp:19,20
Ibid, pp:23-36
Ibid, pp:27,28
S.K.Ramachandra Rao-The Tantra of Sri Chakra, p.iv
Gudrun Buhnemann et al- Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions, D.K.Print World (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 2007, p.13
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- The Yantras, p.15
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- Tantra Mantra Yantra, The Tantra Psychology, p.11
S.K.Ramachandra Rao-The Tantra of Sri Chakra, p.v
Gudrun Buhnemann et al- Op.cit, pp:17,18,28,29
P.V.Kane –History of Dharmashastra, Vol V, part –II, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1962, p.1123
P.V.Kane –History of Dharmashastra, Vol II, part –I, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1941, p.320
P.V.Kane –History of Dharmashastra, Vol V, part –II, p.1124
Ibid, p.1125
Ibid, p.1128
Ibid, pp:1125,1126
Ibid, p.1129
Ibid, p.1119
N.N.Battacharyya- History of the Tantric Religion, Manohar, 2005, p.306
Manoranjan Basu- Op.cit, p.477
Sir John Woodroffe- Sakti and Sakta, 3rd edition, Celephais Press, 2009, pp:565,566
Pushpendra Kumar- Sakti Cult in Ancient India, Bhartiya Publishing House, Varanasi, 1974, pp:164,165
Ibid, p.165
Ibid
Ibid, pp:166,167
Sir John Woodroffe- Op.cit, p.573; Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, Teun Goudriaan- Op.cit, p.155 and Bose & Haldar- Tantras- Their Philosophy and Occult Secrets, Firma KLM Private Ltd, Calcutta, 1981, pp: 144,145,149,150
Vidya Dehijia- Yogini Cult and Temples- A Tantric Tradition, Published by National Museum, Janpath, New Delhi, 1986, p.59; Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, Teun Goudriaan- Op.cit, pp:161,162; N.N.Battacharyya- Op.cit, p.137
N.N.Battacharyya- Op.cit, p.308
N.N.Battacharyya- Op.cit, pp:309-311; Bose & Haldar- Op.cit, pp:161-164
Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, Teun Goudriaan- Op.cit, p.171; Ajit Mookerjee- Kundalini-The Arousal of the inner Energy, Destiny Books, Vermount, 1986, p. 9
Sir John Woodroffe- Op.cit, pp: 636,637
Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, Teun Goudriaan- Op.cit, p.171
Ajit Mookerjee- Op.cit, pp:11,12
Victor M. Fic- The Tantras- Its Origin, Theories, Art and Diffusion from India to Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, China, Japan and Indonesia, Abhinav Publications, 2003, pp: 35,36
Ajit Mookerjee- Op.cit, pp:77,78
N.N.Battacharyya- Op.cit, p.148
Ibid
Deba Brata Sen Sharma- Studies in Tantra Yoga, Natraj Publishing House, Karnal, Haryana, 1985, pp:16,17
Prabuddha Bharata, January 2016, Vol-121, No.1, p. 25