Hanuman, the hero of the Vanaras

Ancient India was inhabited by Devas (Manavas), Asuras, Vanaras, Rakshasas, Yakshas, Nagas, Panis, Dasas, etc. All of them were human beings and claim descent from mythical Rishis. The Devas, Asuras (Daityas and Danavas) and Nagas were descendants from Rishi Marichi, while the Vanaras, Rakshasas and Yakshas were descendants from Rishi Pulastya. Hanuman famous for his strength, stamina and wisdom was born in a Vanara community and was a contemporary of Sri Rama, the ruler of Ayodhya. Hanuman was born at Anjanadri mountain situated near Hampi in Koppal district of Karnataka. His father Kesari was a chieftain and his mother was Anjana. The Puranic literature contains many stories about the birth of Hanuman which are not only fanciful but also disgusting and can be overlooked.

Vanaras were Humans

The word Vanar originally meant ‘the dweller of the Vana (forest)’. The Jaina Ramayana calls the Vanaras as Vanaradhwajas or people having a monkey flag as they had monkey as their totem or emblem. Valmiki refers to three type of people during the Ramayana period, namely Manavas, Vanaras and Rakshasas; who were all highly civilized. The political, religious and social organizations of the Vanaras were of the same pattern as those of the Manavas. The Vanaras led a simple life and were strict vegetarians. A purely vegetarian diet is an indication of their spiritual progress and advanced culture. The Vanaras believed in the principle ‘Live and to Let Live’ and did not involve in conquest of territories belonging to other people. They fought only in self-defense.

The Vanaras are reputed to be knowers of policy and possession of wisdom and to be acquainted with asthras (spiritual weapons). In the Kishkindha kanda (chapter xxxiii verse six) they are described as wearing garlands and clothes. They had an enlightened system of government, made gifts to Brahmins and cremated their dead; all of these shows that they were humans.

In Ramayana Hanuman is referred as mahakapi, that is ‘great monkey’. Probably this epithet was given by the poet due to the over activeness character of Hanuman. “The poet of the Ramayana may have known that the Vanaras were men of the jungle country. But he has served the purpose of the fantastic and marvellous side of his story by depicting Sugriva as a real monkey and his Vanara army as consisting of not only all kinds of monkeys but also bears” says Narayan Aiyangar. According to B.C.Majumdar a clan called Makkals lived in Tamilnadu and this Dravidian term Makkala or Makkada could be easily transformed into Markata (monkey in Sanskrit) and probably the poet of Ramayana made monkey of them. These Makkals once occupied the high lands of Central India including Dandakarnya of Ramayana. Unfortunately, the Vanaras are depicted as monkeys and there is an urgent need to portray and carve Hanuman as a human being, which he was.

Helped Rama fight against Ravana

Hanuman was a close associate of Sugriva whose Vanara kingdom is identified with Rshyamuka mountains near Hampi. Hanuman along with Sugriva and other Vanaras helped Sri Rama in his fight against Ravana. Hanuman accompanied Sri Rama on his return journey to Ayodhya and spent rest of his days with him.

Antiquity of the worship of Lord Hanuman

Before arriving at a date from which Hanuman came to be worshiped, we have to know the date from which Lord Rama came to be defied and worshiped as the worship of Hanuman is a sequel to the worship  of Rama.

According to R.G.Bhandarkar there is no mention of Rama in the works of Patanjali (2^nd century B.C.) Amarasimha (6^th century A.D.) too has not mentioned Rama’s name in his scheme of Brahmanic gods. Madhvacharya is said to have brought the image of Digvijaya Rama from Badarikashrama and sent Naraharitirtha to Jagannatha in 1264 A.D. to bring what was called the original idols of Rama and Sita. The cult of Rama therefore must have come in existence about the 11^th century A.D.

According to H.D.Sankalia, the Ramayana in its present state cannot be earlier than 5^th century A.D. and Rama’s identification with Vishnu, Krishna and Narayana and Sita with Lakshmi took place in Balakanda and Uttarakanda in about the 5^th century A.D. and it took a couple of centuries for people to actually start worshiping Rama. No temples were raised to Rama till the 10^th century A.D. but Ramayana panels frequently occur from 7^th century A.D. onwards.

The worship of Rama as an avatar of Vishnu is at least as old as the time of Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira who describes details of his iconometry and the worship of Rama started at least in the 6^th century A.D. is the view of B.P.Majumdar.

An inscription dated 2^nd century A.D. and found in Kosam village in Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh mentions a person named Indraghosh offering prayers to Bhagawato Rama Narayana. On this basis B.C.Shukla says that Rama was deified by 2^nd -3^rd century A.D.

Sculptural evidence of Hanuman’s worship

We find the earliest surviving sculptures of Hanuman dating from the Gupta period, occur in friezes of Ramayana scenes. These continue to appear in both Shaiva and Vaishnava temples throughout the medieval period. The bronze tableaux of the Chola period includes Rama, Sita and Lakshmana with Hanuman kneeling or standing to one side in a servile pose. A single independent Chola image of Hanuman has been assigned to the late 9^th century A.D.

The oldest free standing image bearing an inscription and dated 922 A.D. is found in the ruins of a small monastery on the edge of the western group of temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh. Two other large images from Khajuraho may date to roughly the same period and may indicate the endorsement by wealthier patrons of Hanuman’s popular cult. In subsequent centuries images of Hanuman appear at many locations in north and central India. For instance a 10^th century A.D. image From Singhbhumi, Bihar, a seated 12^th century A.D. image from Goa and a 13^th century A.D. mustached image from Mallar in Bilaspur district of Madhya Pradesh. During the rule of Vijayanagara empire between 14^th to 16^th century A.D. hundreds of Hanuman images were raised at Hampi in Karnataka.

Hanuman in coins

Hanuman’s form also appears on the coins of a number of dynasties, beginning with the 12^th century A.D. Kalachuris of Ratnapur (Madhya Pradesh). The Varman kings of the Chandela dynasty also issued coins bearing the figures of Hanuman. Other dynasties who issued coins bearing the figures of Hanuman include the Kadamba dynasty of Hanagal (11^th – 12^th century A.D.) and the founder of Vijayanagara kingdom, Harihara I and Bukka I.

Hanuman’s connection with Vrshakapi of Vedic era

F.E.Pargiter in an article in The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, refers to a fable narrated in Brahma Purana about a man born from water having the nature of Shiva and Vishnu and called Vrshakapi. And he helped Indra, the Vedic god by killing his adversary Mahasani who had earlier defeated and humiliated Indra.

Vrshakapi was a Vedic character and a party to a dialogue forming the Rigvedic hymn X.86 to which other parties were Indra and Indrani. The dialogue arose out of Indrani’s jealousy of Indra’s attachment to Vrshakapi, his ally and friend, who is also described as Indra’s son.

Connecting the fable narrated in the Brahma Purana with the Rigvedic hymn, Pargiter says Dravidians worshiped monkeys and Vrshakapi represented some monkey-god whom he identifies with Hanuman. According to Pargiter it was common in Hinduism that local cults though at first superseded by the Vedic religion were not extirpated but reasserted themselves and survived by incorporation into Hinduism. Monkey worship among the Dravidians was at first overborne by the Brahmanic deities but was ultimately assimilated by the Brahmins.

Endorsing Pargiter’s views, K.Ramavarma Raja opines that Vrshakapi was an independent ruler and the chief deity of a wide spread south Indian cult. He helped Indra in recovering his lost kingdom and was treated by Indra as his brother. But later Vrshakapi surrenders his authority to Indra who assumes his (Vrshakapi) name and role and rules over Vrshakapi’s kingdom. Later when the Vedic age was followed by the Puranic one, Indra and other Vedic deities lost their supremacy and surrendered it in their turn to the highest gods of the Puranic age, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva and Vishnu and Shiva assumed the title of Vrshakapi. In the epic story, Ramayana its hero Rama substituted for Indra and Hanuman for Vrshakapi. What Indra was in the Vedic age, so was Rama in the epic age and what Vrshakapi was to Indra, so was Hanuman to Rama.

According to Ramavarma Raja if a boar, a fish or a tortoise could be worshiped as a god at any place or time why could not a monkey too share the same honour? The Vedic religion in its growth and expansion absorbed the local cults and became popular Hinduism and the Vedic deities were superseded by or subordinated in power to the great popular gods or heroes who yet are regarded and treated as incarnations or descendants of the formers.

D.D.Kosambi has also pointed out that in the process of inducting the tribes into a caste society, the exclusive nature of tribal rituals and tribal cults was modified and tribal deities were equated with standard Brahmanical gods and their antecedents and rationale explained in suitable myths in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and in particular, the Puranas. The mechanism of assimilation followed a pattern. Some totemic deities, including the primeval fish, tortoise and boar were made into incarnations of Vishnu-Narayana. The monkey faced Hanuman, hugely popular with the cultivators, became the faithful companion servant of Rama, another incarnation of Vishnu.

The Ramayana had existed in oral tradition for a long time before it was recorded in writing. Valmiki the author of the Ramayana composed his work on the basis of the ancient stories current in the society. If Valmiki was a contemporary of Rama, as goes the Indian tradition, then the oldest Ramayana was sung in Vedic dialect, for Rama belonged to the Vedic age and the present Ramayana is a Sanskrit redaction of the Vedic Ramayana. According to R.S.Sharma the original Ramayana of Valmiki consisted of 6000 verses which were raised to 12,000 and finally to 24,000 and the Ramayana composition started in the 5^th century B.C. and has passed through five stages and the fifth stage seems to be as late as 12^th century A.D.

Ramayana being a kavya, it was possible for Valmiki to give a free rein to his imagination in creating the character of Hanuman. Perhaps he was inspired by the exploits of Vrshakapi while conceptualizing the character of Hanuman who was a son of a chieftain belonging to the Vanara community.

But Philip Lutgendorf opines that Valmiki characterized Hanuman in the role of the Vedic god Vayu. As we know Hanuman was called Vayuputra, had the ability to fly and possessed immense strength.

Paragon of wisdom, strength and devotion

Hanuman was a grammarian and knew the art of healing. The Ramayana says that no one equals him in the knowledge of sastras. Ramayana (Sundara Kanda) speaks of two varieties of Sanskrit which were in vogue at that time; one manushi Samskrita, the popular dialect and the Samskrita dvijatiriva, the language spoken by the cultured Brahmins, the shishtas and Hanuman was a cultured linguist and could speak in both varieties. Addressed variously as Anjaneya, Maruthi, Pavamana, Vayuputra, Ramabhakta, etc., Hanuman is considered to dispel fear, cure disease and give strength and stamina. To relieve children who easily get alarmed for trivial reasons or suffer from nightmares, yantras (talisman) of Hanuman are tied to their arm or around their neck. Hanuman is a bramachari and famous for maintaining strict continence. In all traditional gymnasiums called Vyayamashala, the portrait of Hanuman is hung and worshiped by all those who come there to exercise. Tulasidas wrote a devotional stotra (hymn) called Hanuman chalisa which is recited by devotees to obtain his (Hanuman’s) grace.

Reincarnated as Madhvacharya

In Madhva tradition Hanuman is highly revered and Madhvacharya, the propounder of Dwaita system of philosophy is believed to be the incarnation of Hanuman. Vyasaraya, the spiritual guru of Sri Krishnadevaraya, the famous ruler of Vijayanagara is said to have installed about 700 statues of Hanuman in various parts of the Vijayanagara Empire to inspire people develop manly qualities; who at that time had become desperate due to the repeated aggressive attacks by the Muslim rulers of the Deccan.

Popular God of Hindus

Once upon a time the worship of Hanuman was limited to south India, but now he is worshiped all over India. In southern India Hanuman is so popular that even insignificant villages have his shrines. His heroism, strength and devotion was so much admired that even after their conversion to Islam ex-Hindus erected shrines for him. Inscriptional evidence prove that in Rayalaseema (Andra Pradesh) certain classes of Mussalmans worship Hanuman. In the forts manned by chieftains shrines of Hanuman was built near the gates to infuse into the hearts of their fighting men the spirit of loyal attachment to their masters and indomitable heroism. In all temples dedicated to him, Hanuman is depicted as praying at the feet of Sri Rama or meditating under his favourite Parijata tree. In paintings he is depicted as flying by carrying a mountain in one hand or carrying Sri Rama and his brother Lakshmana on his shoulders.

Reference

Adya Ramachar- Anjaneya Vilasa, Sahitya Sanjeevini (Kannada work), Vardaraja Prakashan, 1997

F. E. Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Oxford University Press, London, 1922

Vettam Mani- Puranic Encyclopedia, Motilal Banarsidass, 1975,

B. V. Kamesvara Aiyar- Valmiki’s Ramayana and the Western Critics, QJMS, Vol XVI, April 1926

P. C. Dharma- Social Life in the Ramayana, QJMS, Vol XXVIII, July 1937

John Dowson- A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature, London, 1879

Chintaharan Chakravarti- Tradition about Vanaras and Rakshasas, The Indian Historical Quarterly, vol I, 1925, Caxton Publication, Delhi, p.781

Narayan Aiyangar- Essays on Indo Aryan Mythology, Madras, 1901

H. Krishna Sastri- South Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses, Madras Government Press, 1916

K.S.Ramaswamy Sastri- The Aryan Colonies of Kiskindha and Lanka, Indian Culture, vol-5, July 1938-April 1939, no- 1-4

R.G.Bhandarkar –Vaisnavism, Saivism and minor religious system, Indological Book House, Varanasi, 1965,

B.P.Majumdar – Rama cult in early medieval India, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol-19, 1956

H.D.Sankalia – The Ramayana in Historical Perspective, Macmillan India Limited, 1982

B.C.Shukla- The earliest inscription of Rama worship, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol-51, 1990

Phlip Lutgendorf – Hanuman’s Tale – The message of a divine monkey, Oxford University Press, 2007

F.E.Pargiter – Suggestions regarding Rig Veda X.86, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, July, 1911

F.E.Pargiter – Vrsakapi and Hanumant, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, April, 1913

K.Ramavarma Raja – The story of Vrishakapi and his transformations, QJMS, vol-21, 1930-31

Kunal Chakrabarti- The Lily and the mud: D.D.Kosambi on Religion, Economic and Political Weekly, vol-43, No.30, July 26-August 1^st, 2008,

Dinesh Sakalani – Questioning the Questioning of Ramayanas, ABORI, vol -84, 2004,

P.V.Kane – The Two Epics, ABORI, vol.47, No.1/4, 1966

Evolution of Skanda-Subrahmanya as a popular god of Hindus

In ancient India there was an exclusive band of devotees whose special object of veneration was the worship of Karttikeya (or Skanda) also known as Murugan/Subrahmanya in south India.¹

Origin of Skanda

Skanda or Karttikeya appears to have originally been a non-Vedic god of the indigenous village populace who associated him with the non-Vedic tribal mother-goddesses and a host of malevolent uncanny spirits which attacked human beings of all ages with physical and mental illness. Skanda was intimately associated with Rudra, who also was originally non-Vedic and was propitiated and supplicated by the village populace and others belonging to the lower vagrant tribal strata of society for curing the many ills-both physical and mental.²

A folk deity

The complications experienced by women during pre-natal and postnatal stages were all taken amongst the common folks to have been caused by the influence of Yakshas and Rakshasas who must be propitiated with bloody offerings. Skanda was one of such folk deities in his original form under several names such as Guha, etc. He was closely associated with a cock which is the most accessible bird to be slaughtered in offerings as up to now. One of the 18 Grahas (evil spirits) was known as Skandapasmara or the spirit which brought about the convulsion of child-life under the effect of diphtheria.3

The evil spirits were supposed to cast their influence on the health of children up to the age of 16 years. All the female Grahas are named Matrikas and all the male Grahas are but different forms of Skanda.⁴

The account of the Mahabharata shows that many bloodthirsty gods and goddesses were worshiped by the people and Skanda was accompanied by such a team. All of them were produced by the seed or germ of Rudra. Owing to this reason these blood sucking ogres were admitted to the fold of Rudra’s host (Rudra gana). Rudra thus became the begetter of Skanda.⁵ In Mahabharata a list of different spirits like Devagraha, Rakshasagraha, Gandharavagraha, Yakshagraha, Pishachagraha are counted as different forms of Skanda and Rudra. It is obvious that all the tutelary goblins that were of an awful nature were assimilated in the cult of Skanda sometimes during the Kushana period.⁶

Assimilated into Hindu Pantheon

The Vedic elite in their confrontation with the indigenous village populace, tried to assimilate them into their Vedic cum Hinduistic fold by adopting their village gods and goddesses and admitting them into their Vedic cum Hindu pantheon.⁷

Skanda was one among the folk gods who entered the Hindu pantheon; to whom various legends and myths were composed in connection with his origin and his association with Hindu pantheon.

Epics and Puranas have references and episodes connected with his origin. He is generally regarded as the son of Shiva and Parvati while at other times as that of Agni and Ganga. It is mentioned that Shiva cast his semen into Agni who, being unable to bear it, cast it into the river Ganga. Hence Skanda is called Agnibhu and Gangaputra. As he was born from the semen of Shiva which fell into Agni, he got the name Skanda (fall). The semen was then transferred to the six Krittikas when they went to bathe in the Ganga, each of whom therefore conceived and begot a son; all these children afterwards become combined in one being having six heads and 12 arms and eyes. Hence he became known by the names of Karttikeya, Shanmukha and Shadanana.⁸

It has been mentioned in the Epics and the Puranas that as the gods had to suffer at the hands of the demons, so on the request of the sages and the gods, Skanda (Karttikeya) was made the chief of the gods army. As the generalissimo of the army of gods, Karttikeya killed the chief of the demons, Tarakasura.⁹

With regards to Karttikeya’s marital status we come across two diametrically opposite pictures of Karttikeya in the Puranas. One presents him as a bachelor, while the other presents him as a young hero married to two wives. Both traditions are prevalent in the country. In Maharashtra for instance Karttikeya is regarded as a confirmed bachelor. Even the mere appearance of women in his temples is strictly prohibited. For instance in the Karttikeya temple on Parvati hill near Poona. In contrast in the temples of the south, he is shown with two wives, Valli and Devasena.¹⁰

The Dharmasutras of Baudhayana (4th or 5th century B.C.) provides early reference to Skanda and his various names, e.g. Sanmukha, Jayanta, Visakha, Subrahmanya and Mahasena which were later on regarded as the various aspects and names of the deity.¹¹

Popularity of Skanda worship

The Mahabhashya of Patanjali suggests the wide prevalence of the worship of Skanda (Karttikeya) in the times of the Mauryas and so also in the Shunga period. It further suggests that the worship of Karttikeya along with Shiva was so popular among the general masses that the Mauryan government even thought of making money by selling the images of these gods. The cult of Karttikeya practically comes to the forefront in the early centuries of the Christian era which is attested by the tribal coins coming from the areas of eastern Punjab, Rohtak, Ujjain, Bhita and Ayodhya, the coins of Kushana king Huvishka and certain stone inscriptions as well as seals.¹²

The National god of Yaudheyas

The numismatic evidence of Skanda’s worship is supplied by the Yaudheya coins of about the 2nd and 3rd century A.D. which contain his figure, sometimes one and at other times six-headed (Shadanana) carrying a spear and a cock or peacock in its two hands. The legend on some the Yaudheya coins read - ‘coin of Brahmanyadeva Kumara, the worshipful Lord, indicating that the coins were issued in the name of Brahmanyadeva Kumara as the spiritual as well as the temporal head of the Yaudheya Ganarajya. The Yaudheyas were the Ayudhajivi Kshatriyas, i.e., Kshatriyas living by their weapons and it is but natural that they would dedicate their State to the divine war god. In a Mahabharata passage; Rohitaka, the city of the Yaudheyas here named Mattamayuraka is called the favorite residence of Karttikeya which means he was the tutelary deity of the region.¹³

The earliest inscriptional evidence about a temple dedicated to the worship of Lord Karttikeya from Abbotabad in the Hazara district of present Pakistan refers to the temple of Karttikeya built by one Gasura Saphara, apparently a foreigner. This inscription is assigned to the 3rd century A.D. The inscription as well proves the popularity of the god Karttikeya with the foreigners, a fact amply proved by the coins of the Kushana ruler Huvishka. On the Huvishka coins Karttikeya appears as Skanda-Kumara, Vishakha and Mahasena.¹⁴

During the Kushana period Karttikeya was not only represented on the coins but also carved on stones. The earliest representation of Karttikeya in sculptural form is found at Mathura, where the Karttikeya cult was quite popular.¹⁵

Skanda worship during Gupta period

During the Gupta period the popularity of Karttikeya increased and Gupta rulers like Kumara Gupta I attached great importance to this god. Not only did he bear the name Kumara (the other name of Karttikeya) but also issued coins in his homage. His son Skanda Gupta also adopted Karttikeya’s other name (i.e. Skanda). The cult of Karttikeya was highly popular during the Gupta period is amply attested by the fact that the great Sanskrit poet and dramatist, Kalidasa immortalized the God by composing his highly famous work Kumarasambhava, which describes not only the birth of the god but also other legends associated with Karttikeya. Kalidasa also informs us that a temple of this god existed at Devagiri in Madhya Pradesh. The Bilsad inscription of the Gupta period also refers to a temple of Karttikeya at Bilsad.¹⁶

The cult of Karttikeya declined in northern India after 7th century after he was associated the Shiva as a member of his family and the cult of Karttikeya became a part of Shaivism.¹⁷

Skanda worship in South India

The worship of Murugan as Skanda is popularly called in Tamil is very old in south India. No deity in Tamilnadu claims so many votaries as Murugan.¹⁸

Murugan was called the Red God (Seyon) and was offered by his worshipers balls of rice mixed with the red blood of goats killed on his behalf. He was a hunter and carried the Vel or spear and was hence called Velan (spears man).¹⁹ The huntsmen and hills tribe or Kuravas worshiped this heroic god of war and his shrines were generally built on the tops of high hills or in the midst of dense forests.²⁰

The oldest Tamil hymns refer to him as the deity of the hilly region. The Tirumurugarruppadai by Nakkirar praises him as a child of the daughter of Himavat, borne down to the earth by Agni and nursed by the six Krttika devis in the grassy pool on the Himalayas. Here the identification of Murugan with Skanda (worshiped in north India) is complete.²¹ By about the 6th century A.D. the Skanda cult had shed its association with the earliest indigenous forms of worship practiced by the hill tribes, the Veddas and the Kuravas and had been incorporated in the Shaiva Agamas.²²

Skanda and Muruga coalesced in Subrahmanya

As Murugan and Skanda-Karttikeya were both originally war gods and had many common traits, these two gods were coalesced to give birth to the popular god Subrahmanya.²³ The name Subrahmanya is only an elaboration of the title Brahmanya, and this title in its turn probably owes its origin to the belief that Skanda is identical with Sanat Kumara, son of Pitamaha Brahma.²⁴

The name Subrahmanya is entirely absent in the early inscriptions found in south India. No reference to this name is found in any epigraph before the 8th century A.D. although the name is as old as the Baudhayana Dharma Sastra and therefore of north Indian origin.²⁵

Subrahmanya’s connection with the Serpent

In some unexplained way there exists an intimate connection between the worship of Subrahmanya and of the serpent.²⁶ Even at present Subrahmanya appears to the physical eyes of his devotees only in the form of a serpent. When a devotee of his god has invoked his help; the appearance of a serpent means that the god has granted the prayers.²⁷ Subrahmanya riding on a peacock, his marriage with the forest maid Valliyamman and the fact that his most famous temples are on hill tops show that he is connected with the ancient tree and serpent worship and the forest deities.²⁸

In Maharashtra, Subrahmanya is worshiped under the name Khandoba or Khandevar which means ‘sword father’. He is the tutelary god of shepherds and is worshipped as a household deity. As Khandoba he is represented as riding a horse and attended by his wife Makshara and a dog. The famous temple of Khandoba is at Jejuri 62 kms east of Pune and was erected in the 14th century. Khandoba is worshipped in Sri Lanka by the name Khandaswami, the name is only corrupt form of the name Skandaswami which in turn is another name of Karttikeya.²⁹

Popularity of Skanda/Subrahmanya worship in South India

As a guardian deity Skanda is enshrined in almost every Shiva temple of importance in south India. He is par excellence the god of youth, of energy and virility.³⁰ The worship of Skanda gained great popularity in the south certainly greater than that of any other ancillary god of Shaivism as indicated by the fact that only in connection with the worship of Skanda was an independent text (Kumara Tantra) needed for instructing worshippers about the various rituals. Apart from what is laid down in this tantra, each temple of Skanda in the south has evolved its own tradition. The god enshrined in the temple at Palani for example is presented as an ascetic thought neither the Puranas nor the tantra support this. In some temples Shakti, the weapon of Skanda shaped like a lance, made of bronze or silver or gold is installed in the place of the image of the god.³¹

Royal patronage to Skanda

The names Skandavarman, Kumaravishnu, Skandashisya and Skandamula among the kings of the Pallava dynasty prove that Karttikeya was very popular during the Pallava period.³² The Cholas also held this god in high esteem. Most of the Shiva temples built during their period had separate shrines for the god Subrahmanya.³³

Skanda/Subrahmanya in Art

There is an unbroken continuity in the evolution of the Skanda cult in the Tamil land as evidenced by the presence of the statues of this god dating from the 7th century A.D. There is a temple of Balasubrahmanya constructed at Kannanur dated A.D.871-907. It is perhaps the earliest dated temple built with stone from the base to the finial. At Tiruvengaivasal there is a rare sculpture of Subrahmanya (11th century) in bas-relief in the virasana pose.³⁴ The synthesis of Skanda with Siva and Uma were expressed in the Somaskanda sculptures of the Pallava period from 7th -8th century. Somaskanda bronze images of the Chola period represent on the same pedestal Siva and Uma with baby Skanda in between.³⁵

Kavadi, offerings to Lord Muruga

Such is the popularity of Muruga cult among Tamil speaking people that even today one can see devotees; men, women and children visiting his shrines, chanting his holy names and carrying over their shoulders, Kavadi or ornamented bamboo poles to which are hung small pots containing milk, sugar, honey, flower and fruits. The person who undertakes this rite has to observe certain austerities.³⁶

Reference

1. Pranabananda Jash – Some aspects of Karttikeya worship with special reference to Bengal., Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol 42 1981, p.163

2. V.M.Bedekar – Kartikeya (Skanda) in Sanskrit literature with special reference to the Mahabharata. From a folk spirit to the chief war god. ABORI, vol 56, no 1/4, 1975, p.168

3. Vasudeva S Agarwal - Ancient Indian Folk Cults, Prithivi Prakashan, Varanasi, 1970, p. 87

4. Ibid, p. 88

5. Ibid, p. 70

6. Ibid, pp: 88,89

7. V.M.Bedekar – Op.Cit, pp: 168,169

8. Pranabananda Jash – Op.Cit, pp:164,165

9. Kanchan Sinha – Cult of Karttikeya in Northern India, The Journal of The Bihar Puravid Parisad, vol 9 & 10, Jan-Dec, 1985-86, pp: 168,169

10. N.R.Bhat –Shaivism in the light of Epics, Puranas and Agamas, Indica Books, Varanasi, 2008, pp:492,493

11. Pranabananda Jash – Op.Cit, p.163

12. Kanchan Sinha – Op.Cit, p.170

13. J.N.Banerjea – Pauranic and Tantric Religion (Early Phase), University of Calcutta, 1966, pp: 148,149

14. Kanchan Sinha – Op.Cit, p.171

15. Ibid

16. Ibid, p. 172

17. Ibid

18. K.R.Venkataraman, Skanda Cult in South India- The Cultural Heritage of India – vol- iv, Editor- Haridas Bhattacharyya, The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta, 1956, p.309

19. P.T.Srinivas Iyengar – History of the Tamils from the earliest times to 600 A.D., C.Coomarasawmy & Sons, Madras, 1929, p.76

20. V.Kanakasabhai – The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, The South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tirunelveli Ltd, Madras, 1956, p.229

21. K.R.Venkataraman – Op.Cit, p. 309

22. Ibid, p.311

23. Asim Kumar Chatterjee – The Cult of Skanda-Karttikeya in Ancient India, Punthi Pustak, Calcutta, 1970, p.64

24. R.C.Majumdar, Editor, The History and Culture of the Indian People, vol- ii, Age of Imperial Unity, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Mumbai, 2001, p.468

25. Asim Kumar Chatterjee – Op.Cit, p. 76

26. H.Krishna Sastri- South Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses, Madras Government Press, 1916,p. 177

27. P.T.Srinivas Iyengar – Op.Cit, p.76

28. H.Krishna Sastri- Op.Cit, p.177

29. Swami Parmeshwaranand- Encyclopedia of the Shaivism, vol-3, Sarup&Sons, New Delhi, 2004, pp:73,74

30. H.Krishna Sastri- Op.Cit, p.183

31. N.R.Bhat – Op.Cit, pp: 495,496

32. Asim Kumar Chatterjee – Op.Cit, p. 68

33. Ibid, p. 70

34. K.R.Venkataraman- Op.Cit, pp:310,311

35. Ibid, p.312

36. Ibid, p313

Agni, the par excellence God of Vedic cult

All primitive men had undoubtedly noticed the phenomena of forest fire during the early stage of their existence. With awe and wonder men would have looked at such forest fires, uncontrolled ravages of which would provoke deep and sustained fear and adoration for fire in their minds.¹ Apart from sustaining a feeling of awe and wonder at the sight of forest fire, primitive men might also have noticed some of the beneficial outcomes of such fire. Such fire might have rendered the flesh of some animals edible, regions destroyed by such fire would promote growth of fresh vegetation and such fire would cause wind to blow and clouds to gather. In all these outcomes primitive men might have found with the passage of time possibilities of expansion of agriculture.²

Agni, indispensable for Vedic sacrifices

Sacrifice had been the most important religious function extolled and held in the highest esteem in the Vedic hymns and sacrificial fire had been the centre of all religious functions of the people of Vedic tradition. That accounts for the importance of Agni in the horizon of Vedic culture. In the Rigveda there are about 200 hymns in which Agni is invoked as deity par excellence and in numerous other hymns Agni is found invoked with other principal deities like Surya, Indra, Ashwins and others.³

Association of Agni with the practice of sacrifice in the Vedic culture has undoubtedly been a unique feature of the Indian tradition. This association was based on two characteristics of fire. First of all its power to consume everything, in most cases leaving no traceable remains and secondly the upward trend of the progress of fire which led the Vedic people to surmise that whatever was offered to Agni was carried upward by him to reach the offerings to their respective destination, to the reach of the Gods. Thus Agni was held as having a clear link between the worlds above and the surface of the earth.⁴

Agni on earth has been supposed to be identical with Apam Napat (lightning in the clouds) in the atmospheric region and with Surya (sun) in heaven.⁵ This realization about the fundamental oneness lying in the terrestrial fire, lightning in the sky and the sun shows the advanced knowledge possessed by Vedic rsis.⁶

Dispeller of darkness and invoker of the gods

The reason for lighting Agni was due to the fact that fire as light was considered as a counter entity of darkness and thus an adversary of all the forces of evil that prosper or function in darkness. The lighting of fire dispelled darkness and setting up of Agni and his worship became necessary before the performance of any sacrifice. Agni became the invoker of the gods because the lighting of fire was a signal to the gods to get ready for partaking of offerings made by men. When these offerings began to be made in Agni, he became the mouth of the Gods.⁷

Symbolism of Agni

Agni as envoy of Gods

According to R.N.Dandekar, Agni was originally conceived as duta, as the envoy of the gods, as the successful intermediary between gods and men.⁸ It was only secondarily and as an afterthought he was brought in relationship with fire symbolism.⁹

An enlightener of men

Agni is typically known as the all-knowing god (Vishvavedas, Vishvavid), the knower of beings or becoming (Jatavedas) and inspired sage (Kavi). These epithets and names make Agni not only enlightened but also the enlightener of men. Hence there is a good deal of possibility that Agni symbolizes enlightenment, insight, illumination, etc., opines, Dipak Bhattacharya.¹⁰

Agni the god different from sacrificial fires

Agni as a Vedic god is to be clearly distinguished from the sacrificial fires such as the Ahavaniya, the Garhapatya and the Daksina. These fires are never referred to as devatas. Sacrificial oblations are offered on these fires, but never to these fires.¹¹

Agni’s association with Angiras, Bhrgu and Manu

Angiras, a seer of pre-historic period is closely connected with the enkindling of Agni and the cult of sacrifice. The Vedic seers often refer to him and his descendants, the Angirasas very respectfully as ‘our ancient fathers’.¹² The Angirasas are said to have found out Agni concealed in the trees of the forest and to have churned him out and therefore the fire is called Angiras. Hence the Angirasas are the first priests of Agni and employed him for the sacrificial purposes.¹³

Likewise Bhrgus has been described as having brought fire from heaven. This may permit an inference that they were responsible for the introduction of a special fire cult. The names Atharavan (possessor of fire) and Angiras (messenger) were also associated with Bhrgu. But it is not yet clear what that special fire cult was like.¹⁴

The Rigveda holds Manu as the first kindler of fire and sacrificers are spoken of as the people of Manu and Agni is said to abide among the offsprings of Manu who was the first sacrificer.¹⁵

Agni’s role in Hindu Samskaras

In Vedic tradition, every Brahmana householder, strictly so called was required to maintain the sacred fire in his house without quenching it and to offer oblations regularly three times a day, along with his usual prayers to Gayatri.¹⁶ Hence the family hearth¹⁷ became the centre of all domestic rites and ceremonies.¹⁸ As Agni was believed to be a great and renowned protector against illness, demons and other hostile spirits, he was always kindled in the beginning of every samskara; as one of the objects of the samskaras was to ward off evil influences.¹⁹ To ancient Hindus Agni was not only the house lord and protector but also the high priest and mediator and messenger between gods and men. In the first capacity it supervised the ceremonies and in the second it bore offerings to gods.²⁰ Agni was regarded as the director of rites and guardian of morality. Every rite was performed and contract and bond executed by Agni. It was an eternal witness around which during Upanayana and the Vivaha ceremonies, the student and the husband and wife made circumambulations, so that their ties may be valid and permanent.²¹

Fire cult led to development of Geometry and Arithmetic

For construction of fire altars necessary for conducting Vedic sacrifices, manuals called Sulba Sutras were composed. According to Bibhutibhusan Datta the problems which presented themselves in connection with the construction of the sacrificial altars led to the study and development of geometry and arithmetic in ancient India just as the study of astronomy is known to have begun and developed out of necessity for fixing the proper time for the sacrifice.²²

Hostility of the Rakshasas to sacrifices

It is interesting to note that the Rakshasas have been held hostile to sacrifice of the Vedic hymnists who invoked Agni more frequently than other gods to dispel the depredation of the Rakshasas and to destroy them.²³ The Ramayana give accounts of the hostility between the offerers of sacrifices and the opposer of sacrifices.²⁴

The offerers of sacrifices held Agni in high esteem for his efficacy in promoting different ventures of life. Firstly as forest fire, Agni cleared primeval forests, forests full of wild animals and other dangers. Land cleared of jungles became suitable for new habitation and cultivation. Fire kindled in household protects from wild animals and as sacrificial fire carries oblations higher to other gods.²⁵

The Rakshasas were opposed to the efficacy of fire because of two reasons. Wild forest fires affect the forest dwelling of the Rakshasas and deprive them of natural goods such as fruits and roots and also scare away animals. Also the attempt on the part of the descendants of Manu to clear jungles and spread agriculture called for powerful resistance from the Rakshasas (who probably considered it as an encroachment of their territory).²⁶

Agni, a symbol of suffering and destruction

Hence for the Rakshasas, Agni became the symbol of their ouster, suffering and destruction. As such they became the sworn enemies of Agni and as such, sacrifice and the performers of sacrifice. Thus the encounter between the Rakshasas and the Manavas (descendants of Manu) was a clash of two culture and two modes of life in which the Manavas emerged victorious.²⁷

Iconography of Agni

Agni as an image is represented to be an old man; he is the oldest of the gods and a counter part of the sun on earth. He has a red body, two heads, six eyes, seven arms, seven tongues, four horns and three legs. He is surrounded by a circle of light; is seated on a lotus pedestal and is supposed to reside in a quadrangle- evidently the quadrangle sacrificial fire-pit. His vehicle is the ram and he is attended on either side by his two wives, Svaha and Svadha.²⁸

Reference

1. Kalyan Kumar Ganguli – Agni – A Primal deity of the Rgveda, Journal of Ancient Indian History, vol-ix, part 1-2, 1975-76, D.R.Bhandarkar Centenary Number, Calcutta University, 1976, p.3

2. Ibid, p.2

3. Ibid

4. Ibid, p.9

5. Kshetresh Chandra Chattopadhyaya – Vedic Religion, Centre of Advanced Study in Philosophy, Banaras Hindu University, 1975

6. Kalyan Kumar Ganguli – Op.Cit, pp:2,3

7. Kshetresh Chandra Chattopadhyaya – Studies in Vedic and Indo-Iranian Religion and Literature, Vol- I, Bharatiya Vidya Prakasana, 1976, pp:97,98

8. R.N.Dandekar – Vedic Mythological Tracts, Ajanta Publications, Delhi, 1979, p.311

9. Ibid, p.296

10. Dipak Bhattacharya - Mythological and Ritual Symbolism- A Study with reference to the Vedic and Tantric Agni, Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar, Calcutta, 1984, p.40

11. R.N.Dandekar – Op.Cit, p.279

12. N.J.Shende – Angiras in Vedic Literature, ABORI, vol 31, No ¼, 1950, p.108

13. Ibid, p.110

14. Kshetresh Chandra Chattopadhyaya – Studies in Vedic and Indo-Iranian Religion and Literature, , p.98

15. Kalyan Kumar Ganguli – Op.Cit, p.19

16. H.Krishna Sastri- South Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses, Madras Government Press, 1916, p.22

17. The family hearth or grhya fire was the nuptial fire which was kindled on the day of the marriage by the newly married pair, which the bridegroom carried in a vessel to his house and lit. (P.V.Kane – History of Dharmashastras, vol – 2, part I, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1941 pp:678,679

18. Raj Bali Pandey – Hindu Samskaras, A Socio-religious study of the Hindu Sacraments, Vikrama Publications, Banaras, 1949, p.59

19. Ibid, pp:58,60

20. Ibid, p.61

21. Ibid, p.62

22. Bibhutibhusan Datta – The Science of the Sulba: A Study in Early Hindu Geometry, University of Calcutta, 1932, pp:1,2

23. Kalyan Kumar Ganguli – Op.Cit, p.18

24. Ibid, p.19

25. Ibid, p.21

26. Ibid, pp: 21,22

27. Ibid

28. H.Krishna Sastri- Op.Cit, pp: 242,243