Sri Krishna’s role in the decline of the Vedic cult

A historical survey of religious cults in India shows that after a period of flourish, many cults were discarded or replaced by a new cult or assimilated and amalgamated into a more robust form of belief and system of worship.¹ One such cult which lost its significance over a period of time was the Indra cult and Sri Krishna played an important role in its decline.

Characteristics of Indra and his cult

A human hero, Indra attained godhead by virtue of his miraculous exploits.² Indra represented mainly valour and force, but he combines with those traits certain others, which one would not like to associate with the idea of the divine. Thus he is vain and boastful and is found of an intoxicating drink, Soma.³

In Indra cult or Vedic religion, powers of nature like fire, wind, sun, etc., were personified and hymns addressing these gods were uttered while offering materials like milk, grain and ghee to them. The motive was to secure the objects of ordinary desire-children, cattle, etc., or to get one’s enemy out of the way. Later this childlike worship gave way to an organised hieratic sacrificial cult.⁴

Sri Krishna's cult - A reaction against the barren excesses of the Vedas

As a reaction against the barren excesses of the Vedas, Sri Krishna started a new cult also known as Bhagavatism and was one of the reform movements started against the domination of the Brahmins and the sacrifices performed by them. Dr. Bhandarkar holds the opinion that the cult of Vasudeva (Krishna) was formed from the same intellectual ferment which produced Buddhism and Jainism, but it was a religious reform. It repudiated the slaughter of animals and the inefficiency of the sacrificial ritual and advocated the path of devotion as the way of salvation. This cult which was flourishing in the fourth B.C. was essentially a Kshatriya movement and was not much favoured by the Brahmins.⁵

Evidence to the fall of Indra and rise of Krishna

From the days of Rigveda, a festival of Indra connected with his worship was celebrated wherein a pole (Indra dhvaja) bearing an image of Indra was exhibited. This is referred in Rig Veda, Ramayana, Mahabharata and also Silappadhikaram, a Tamil epic.⁶ In Harivamsa, it is said that Sri Krishna challenged the utility of observing the festival in honour of Indra and pleads for a worship of the Hills and the Woods- which are the grazing grounds for the cattle. Krishna initiates a new form of worship-Giri yajna, a sacrifice in honour of the wooded hill Govardhana. Indra who was enraged at this insult creates a furious shower of rain, storm and thunder. Krishna is said to have uprooted the hill and held it aloft by his right hand and provided cover from the elements. Indra after having watched the miracle of the lifting of the Govardhana hill and saving the cattle came and paid respects to Krishna.⁷

Reference to the above story is also found in Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Vishnu Purana and Srimad Bhagavata.⁸ This incident is also represented in art and can be found in a relief dated third century A.D. in the Mathura Museum and at Krishna Mandapa cave at Mahabalipuram, dated 7th century A.D. to cite a few.⁹

According to Dhirendra Nath Pal, this incident might be an allegory signifying that the Indra worshippers finding their god slighted attacked the Gopas and made an attempt to destroy their new sacrifice and that Krishna in this armed attack protected the hill on which the Gopas took shelter.¹⁰

Bhagavad Gita questions the efficacy of Vedas

Sri Krishna not only challenged the utility of observing the festival of Indra but also questioned the efficacy of performing Vedic rites to attain moksha (liberation). He states that the practice of Vedic rites does not lead to liberation (Bhagavad Gita, chapter 2, verses 42,43). He also says that performance of Vedic rituals give finite results whereas by meditating upon him (Krishna), one gets final liberation(Bhagavad Gita, chapter 9, verses 20,21,22). Unlike Vedic rites which are performed with an intention to get a desired result, Krishna says that action should be performed without any attachments (Bhagavad Gita, chapter 3, verse 28).

Indra- Symbol of Vedic religion

About 250 out of the 1028 Rigvedic hymns are exclusively devoted to the glorification of Indra. Apart from these hymns, there are several others, wherein he is praised in association with other gods or is referred to in some other connection in the Rigveda. As the most popular god of the Vedic pantheon Indra has always been regarded as the very symbol of the official Vedic religion- the Indra mythology being very nearly identified with the Vedic religion as a whole.¹¹ Hence Indra’s ignominious fall shows the wane of the Vedic religion.

Vedic Brahmins animosity against Sri Krishna’s religion

The Vedic Brahmins had contempt towards the Bhagavatas (who were also referred as Satvatas¹² and Pancaratris) as they worshiped images and lived upon the offerings for initiation and those made to temple gods. They did not perform the Vedic duties and had no relationship with the Brahmins and so they (Bhagavatas) were not regarded as Brahmins by the Vedic Brahmins. It was considered that even by the sight of a man who takes to worship as a means to livelihood is polluted and should be purified by proper purificatory ceremonies. The Vedic Brahmins also regarded the Pancharatra texts adopted by the Bhagavatas as invalid and non-Vedic.¹³

The Vedic definition of dharma was quite different from that of the Bhagavatas. Dharma according to Bhagavata Purana (the devotional literature of the Bhagavatas) consists in the worship of God without any ulterior motive- a worship performed with a perfect sincerity of heart by men who are kindly disposed towards all and who have freed themselves from all feeling of jealousy.¹⁴ This interpretation of dharma by the Bhagavatas was superior to the Vedic definition of dharma which could produce only sense gratification of various kinds.¹⁵

Hence Medhatithi, the commentator on Manu Smriti discards not only Buddhism and Jainism as being outside the true Vedic dharma but also the followers of Pancaratra (Bhagavatas) and the Pasupatas as well. He held that their (Bhagavatas) teachings are directly contrary to the mandates of the Vedas and as an illustration he points out that the Bhagavatas considered all kinds of injury to living beings to be sinful, which directly contradicts the Vedic sanctions to sacrifice animals at particular sacrifices. According to him injury to living beings is not itself sinful but only such injury is sinful as is prohibited by the Vedic injunctions. So the customs and practices of all systems of religion which are not based on the teaching of the Vedas are to be discarded as not conforming to dharma.¹⁶ Another reason for the Vedic Brahmins to denounce the Bhagavatas was due to the latter initiating and admitting within their sect even women and sudras.¹⁷

As the popularity of Krishna rose, his opponents tried to defame him by creating stories like Krishna marrying 16,000 maidens and by even interpolating the Bhagavad Gita wherein Krishna is made to declare that he created the four castes.

Bhagavad Gita – Bed-rock of Hindu philosophy

Today Sri Krishna is the most highly esteemed religious prophet among the Hindus and his teachings are contained in the Bhagavad Gita.

The Bhagavad Gita, the Upanishads and the Brahma-Sutras technically known as the three prasthanas- form the bedrock of Vedanta philosophy. According to Hindu tradition, a philosopher or sage seeking to preach a new doctrine must gain his support from the above three texts which alone are the valid authorities on super-sensuous truths.¹⁸

^Reference

1. O.C.Gangoly – Indra cult versus Krsna cult, Journal of the Ganganath Jha Research Institute, vol vii, November, 1949, part -I, p.1

2. R.N.Dandekar – Vedic Mythological Tracts, Ajanta Publications, Delhi, 1979, p.162

3. M.Hiriyanna – The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, London, 1949, p.11

4. M.Hiriyanna – The Essentials of Indian Philosophy , pp:10,11 and Outlines of Indian Philosophy, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, London, 1949, p.35

5. N.Luniya- Life and Culture in Ancient India, Lakshmi Narain Agarwal, Agra, p.213

6. O.C.Gangoly – Op.Cit, pp:45

7. Ibid, pp: 7-10

8. Ibid, pp: 12-15

9. Ibid, pp: 20,21

10. Dhirendra Nath Pal- Sri Krishna- His Life and Teachings, Published by C.C.Basak, The Research Home, Calcutta, 1923, pp:60,61

11. R.N.Dandekar – Op.Cit, p.141

12. “The Satvatas are counted by Manu as a low caste people born from outcast Vaishyas and not entitled to the holy thread. The Satvatas were of course regarded as the same as Bhagavatas, and their chief duties consisted of worshipping in Vishnu temples by the order of the king. They also repaired or constructed temples and images for their living and were therefore regarded as outcast.” Surendranath Dasgupta-History of Indian Philosophy, vol- II, Cambridge University Press, 1952, p.546

13. Surendranath Dasgupta – A History of Indian Philosophy, vol-iii, Cambridge University Press, 1952, p.15

14. Surendranath Dasgupta – A History of Indian Philosophy, vol-iv, Cambridge University Press, 1961, p.10

15. Ibid, p.11

16. Ibid, p.7

17. Surendranath Dasgupta – A History of Indian Philosophy, vol-iii, pp: 19,20

18. Swami Nikhilananda – The Bhagavad Gita, Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Centre, November 1944, p.2

Rishis of Ancient India

 Sayana connects the word rishi with drsh (to see) and says that the Veda, which was beyond the scope of sense-perception, was revealed first to the sages through the favour of God. As the sages were the first ‘to see’ the Veda, they are called rishis.¹ The Rigvedic hymns were composed mainly by rishis like Grtsamada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bhradvaja, Vasistha and Kanva and their family members.² The only factor that distinguished the rishis from the general citizens were their special poetic gift, their ability to see things beyond what the general people were able to see. As such, the word rishis in Vedic tradition came to mean ‘one who can see’.³ Therefore, a rishi was an inspired poet or sage to whom the hymns of the Vedas were revealed.⁴

Followers of Nivrttidharma and Pravrttidharma

The Mahabharata presents two sets of seven rishis said to have expounded two kinds of values. One set of seven rishis, viz., Sana, Sanatasujata, Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatakumara, Kapila and Sanatana are said to be the spiritual sons of Brahma, who follow the religion of renunciation (nivrtti dharma). They are the foremost of all persons conversant with Yoga and have profound knowledge of Samkhya philosophy. They are the teachers of the scriptures on duty and it is they who introduced the dharma of liberation.⁵

The other seven rishis namely, Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu and Vasistha, known conjointly as Citrashikhandins are said to be the preceptors of the Veda and the followers of the world-affirming dharma (pravrtti dharma).⁶ The sages who followed the pravrttidharma were called agnihotrins and were householders. They re-establish the shrinking dharma in every age by the powers of their penance, learning and established usages. They are said to perish at the time of dissolution because of their worldly activities.⁷

Categories of Rishis

There were three categories of sages, namely Brahmarishis, Devarishis and Rajarishis. Also, five classes of sages were enumerated, like the mind-born sons of Brahma, Maharishis, Rishis, Rishikas and Mantravadins. It is not clear whether the group of seven sages formed a separate class. Most probably they were the same as the mind-born sons of Brahma also referred to as Prajapatis. They are also mentioned as Maharishis and probably were the same as Brahmarishis who were the first in the three categories of sages mentioned above.⁸

Brahmarishis

The Brahmarishis were concerned mostly with divine knowledge, deep learning and ethical conduct. They enrich the store of knowledge in order to enhance the spiritual well- being of the people. They were highly proficient in the doctrine of Brahman.⁹ It is stated that only in the five gotras, namely, Kashyapa, Vasishtha, Bhrgu, Angiras and Atri are the Brahmarishis born. It is for their knowledge of the Vedas, their birth and tapas that they are well-known. They are superior to Devarishis and Rajarishis.¹⁰

Devarishis

The Devarishis were those who had reached the god’s status by their knowledge and establishing communion with the Divine Being.¹¹ They were inferior to Brahmarishis but were superior to Rajarishis. The descendants of Dharma, Pulastya, Kratu, Pulaha, Prabhasa and Kashyapa were known as Devarishis. Their ultimate goal was the Devaloka. Nara, Narayana, Parvata and Narada, etc., are mentioned as Devarishis.¹²

Rajarishis

The kings who composed hymns were regarded as Rajarishis or Rajanyaarishis.¹³ They are mostly born in the vamsas or families of Manava and Aida. Their ultimate goal is Indraloka. Among the Rajarishis were kings like Janamejaya, Anga, Somadhi, Jahnu, Divodasa, Yayati, Kartavirya Arjuna, Janaka, etc.¹⁴

Saptarishis

In the Shatapata Brahmana there is reference to Saptarishis or seven rishis also called Prajapatis (mind-born sons of Brahma) and they were Gotama, Bharadwaja, Vishwamitra, Jamadagni, Vasishtha, Kashyapa and Atri. The names of the Saptarishis given in the Mahabharata are Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya and Vasishta.¹⁵

Gotrarishis

All Brahmins are supposed to be descended from Brahma and legend says that when Brahma made a sacrifice, seven Brahma rishis emerged from it and they were Bhrigu, Angiras, Marici, Atri, Pulaha, Pulastya and Vasishtha. Pulaha gave birth to Rakshasas and Pulastya to Pishachas while Vasishtha died and appears as a descendant of Marici. Thus, all existing Brahmanas are the descendants of the first four rishis. From the first four rishis appear eight rishis known as gotrakaras or family finders and they are Jamadagni (a descendant of Bhrigu), Bharadvaja and Gotama (descendants of Angiras), Kashyapa, Vasishtha and Agastya (descendants of Marici), Atri and Vishwamitra (descendants of Atri).¹⁶

Subsequent to the formation of the above eight families ten more families came into existence. They consist of those Brahmanas who once followed the profession of Kshtriyas (warriors) became again Brahmanas and followed either Bhrigu or Angiras. They were Vitahavya, Mitrayu, Shunaka, Vena, Rathitara, Mudgala, Vishnurviddha, Harita, Kanva and Sankriti.¹⁷

The formation of the Gotra lineage of the Brahmanas after the Vedic rishis establishes the fact that the later Brahmanas became the representatives of the rishis of by-gone days. The inheritance of the rishi tradition seems to be also one of the factors which made the Brahmanas the intellectual leaders of the society.¹⁸

Paramarishis

The Paramarishis were experts in sacrifice and promulgators of the Padmavidhi in sacrifice. Sanatkumara is the chief of the Paramarishis and they are said to reside in Prayaga.¹⁹

Shrutarishis

The Shrutarishis hear the highest and hence the title. They are so called because they know the path of knowledge by penance etc., as described in the Upanishads.²⁰

Viprarishis

The Viprarishis were those Brahmanas who were engaged in discharging proper duties as enjoined upon by the law-givers. In earlier times they used to recite Kathas and Gathas and came to belong to the Samavedic branch.²¹

Representatives of the Vedic thought

The rishis who represented the Vedic current of thought, sponsored the Indra-cult, recited prayers, performed homas and lived a full social life of a householder. The rishi-hood was not a monopoly of any particular class or sect. Many of the Rig Vedic rishis were poets, priests and warriors combined. Nor rishi-hood restricted to the male sex and several rishikas like Vishvavara, Ghosha, etc., distinguished themselves by their writings. The rishis played a very significant role in the religious, social, political and literary history of ancient India.²²

The characteristics of rishis who represented the glorious past and were closely connected with the ritualistic culture, changed considerably on account of the impact of the Muni-Shramana tradition and more positively by the presence of the Upanishadic trend.²³

Reference

1. V.G.Rahurkar – The Seers of the RGVeda, University of Poona, 1964, p. xiii

2. C.Kunhan Raja – Vedas: A Cultural Study, Andhra University, Waltair, 1957, pp: 44-47

3. Ibid, p. 41

4. John Dowson – A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature, London, 1897, p. 268

5. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Brahmanas in Ancient India, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Ltd, 1979, pp: 66,67

6. Ibid

7. S.G.Kantawala – A Note on Rsis, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Vol-vii, 1957-58, Baroda, p. 62

8. D.R.Patil – Cultural History from the Vayu Purana, Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute, Poona, 1946, pp:21,22

9. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Op.Cit, p. 132

10. D.R.Patil – Op.Cit, p.22

11. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Op.Cit, p. 132

12. D.R.Patil – Op.Cit, p.22

13. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Op.Cit, p.5

14. D.R.Patil – Op.Cit, p.22

15. John Dowson – Op.Cit, p. 268

16. P. Chentsal Rao – The Principles of Pravara and Gotra, Mysore, 1900, p.ii

17. Ibid, p. iii

18. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Op.Cit, p. 5

19. S.G.Kantawala – Op.Cit, p.65

20. Ibid, p.66

21. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Op.Cit, p. 132

22. V.G.Rahurkar – Op.Cit, pp: xv,xvi

23. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Op.Cit, pp: 131, 132