Shaktism is a very important religion among the Hindus of the present day all over India. Those who worship the Supreme deity exclusively as the Female Principle are called Shaktas. Shakti is worshipped in various forms and numerous shrines are dedicated to her images in different parts of the country. The Shaktas conceive their Great Goddess as the personification of primordial energy and the source of all divine and cosmic evolution. She is identified with the Supreme Being, conceived as the source and spring as well as the controller of all the forces and potentialities of nature. Nowhere in the religious history of the world do we come across such a completely female-oriented system.1
Origin of Mother Worship
According to anthropologists, Mother worship with ceremonies and ritualist practices developed as a religious function under a particular social environment based on a predominantly matriarchal social system, where the mother was the central figure or the nucleus of the social structure. Two factors were mainly responsible for this important position of the mother in the primitive society: first, the economic role of women and second, the absence of any rigid law or system of marriage, leaving a wide field for promiscuity. Children, as social entities, had their social description or status mainly with reference to their mother and inheritance was also in the line of the mother. This dominant position of the mother in society made her a symbol, as it were of power, social and economic. It may therefore be presumed that when men of these matriarchal societies, inspired by their primitive emotion of wonder and awe, began to conceive of any higher supernatural being, they conceived it in the image of the mother.2
Mother worship was Universal in ancient world
Belief in some form or the other in the mother goddess is to be found in the good old days of many of the races, Semitic, Hellenic, Teutonic and Nordic alike. But what singles India out in this matter is the continual history of the mother cult from the hoary past down to the modern times, and the way in which the religious consciousness, developing and deepening round this Mother concept, has influenced the thoughts and ideas of the whole nation through the ages.3
God who exists as the creator, preserver and destroyer of the Universe must possess infinite power is a universal belief. But what lends it a specially Indian colour is the dominant tendency of the Indians to view this power or universal energy as something like a female counterpart of the possessor of this power. This power or Shakti, being conceived as a counterpart of the possessor of Shakti came to be recognized frankly as the consort of the possessor. This is responsible for the fact that not only among the Shaktas, but also among the Shaivas and Vaishnavas an important place is occupied by Shakti. There is seldom a god or a semi-god or a demi-god of India of the Puranic age for whom a consort has not been conceived as the inseparable Shakti.4
Mother worship during prehistoric and early historic period
Among the objects discovered in Mohenjodaro and Harappa it is interesting to see specimens of the yoni and from this it has been rightly concluded that the cult of the mother-goddess was already prevalent in the Indian continent in the chalcolithic period.5 A large number of stone discs, belonging to the period between 2nd century B.C. and 1st century A.D. found from Taxila, Kosam, Patna and other historical sites, depict nude figures of the goddess of fertility. To the same period of time have been assigned a few terracotta figurines collected from such widely separated sites as Sarnath, Basarh, Bulandibagh, Kumrahar and other places round about the old sites of Pataliputra, Bhita, Nagari, Samkisa, Kosam and Taxila. They represent females with heavy and exaggerated hips, round and prominent breasts and clearly marked navel and abdomen and seem to be associated with the primitive conception of the Mother-Goddess.6
Reference to Goddesses in Vedic literature
During the Rigvedic period we notice more importance attached to male gods and goddesses are conceived either as wives, daughters or the beloved of male gods. Among the goddesses known from Rigveda mention may be made of Usha, Saraswathi, Adhiti, Privthi, etc. Usha was entirely a natural phenomenon and no clear definite anthropomorphic features would be fixed for her. Though a maximum number of hymns are referred to Usha it is difficult to say if this goddess was at all a powerful one as she was dropped from the list of divinities later. The other female goddess Sarasvathi was a river goddess and later she is attached to Brahma and becomes a goddess presiding over knowledge. Also Prithivi or the earth goddess is held in high esteem in the Atharvaveda. However her anthropomorphic form could not be very well determined in the early period. Adithi in the Rigveda is the all-powerful great mother-goddess but during the later period almost goes into oblivion and even in the Vedas she has not been separately assigned any prayers.7
In the later Vedic period we find anxiety on the part of the Rishis to find a consort for their gods. This may be considered as the concrete attempt towards the achievement of the idea of Shakti, the feminine energy, as the spouse of a god. As a result Ambika, who is conceived as a sister of Rudra becomes the wife of Shiva who is also a Rudra. Gradually Shiva gained prominence and his spouse Uma became a powerful goddess. We also find the emergence of Durga who is connected with Agni. In the Taittiriya Aranyaka the names of Durga, Vairocani, Katyayini, Kanya Kumari appear in the verses addressed to Agni. Thus it is obvious that during the later Vedic period there was a definite attempt of assimilating some non-Vedic mother-goddess forms.8 According to Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya goddesses of the post-Rig Vedic literature like Ambika, Uma, Kali, Durga, etc., were non-Vedic deities later adopted by the Vedic people. The different names of the Mother Goddess appear to have originally indicated different tribal deities who were afterwards identified with the wife of Shiva Pashupati, the non-Vedic god known to have been worshipped by the people of Mohenjodaro.9
Reference to Goddesses in the Epics and Puranas
The Mahabharata, Harivamsa and the Puranas tells us that in early times female deities of different forms and names were worshipped in different parts of India by the followers of the Vedas as well as by the Shavaras, Varvaras, Pulindas, Kiratas and many other non-Vedic tribes. These female deities appear in these works generally as divine mothers associated as spouses with particular male gods, but much more prominently as virgin deities sporting on mountain tops and being the sources of origin of the divine mothers. Thus Durgi or Durga, a great mountain goddess associated very often with the Himalayas is called a virgin in early sources such as the Taittiriyaaranyaka and the Mahabharata. Another deity Vindhyavasini also appears as a virgin deity in all works.10
Worship of Female deities inspired from non-Vedic tribes
It is highly probable that the non-Vedic tribes had a matriarchal system of society and that it was due to this system that the custom of worshipping female deities grew among them. They used to worship their deities by offering them meat, wine and it is highly probable that on these occasions they sacrificed human beings, drank wine, indulged in frantic revels and practised sexual promiscuity. These tribes seem to have worshipped their female deities mainly for protection against ferocious wild beasts and ghosts. They also appear to have believed that these deities were able to protect them in all kinds of danger and to confer on them wealth and prosperity as well as victory in war. Many of the Shakta deities of the Puranas and Tantras like Uma, Kaushiki, Vindhyavasini, Durga, Candi, Kali, Chamunda, Kamakhya, Shakambhari and others were modelled on the popular deities of the aboriginal tribes and those associated with mountains, namely Himalaya and Vindhya.11
None of the names of the different forms of Durga is mentioned in the Vedic Samhitas and the Brahmanas. It was only at a much later date that the aboriginal deities began to be admitted into the Vedic pantheon by a very slow process of assimilation and Uma was the first non-Vedic deity to be regarded as the wife of Rudra.12
According to S.K.Tiwari many tribal goddesses were assimilated in the Vedic pantheon over a period of time. For instance Dhartimata or goddess of the earth was a tribal goddess who became Bhudevi and associated with Vishnu-Varaha (Lord Vishnu in the boar form). Similarly Vindhyavasini, the mountain goddess of Vindhyachala and Parvathi, the mountain goddess of Himalaya were later unified in the form of Durga.13 The famous Shakti goddess Kamakhya in Assam worshipped in the form of Yoni was the goddess of the Kirata tribe, the Khasis who used to called their goddess as Kamei-kha.14
Cult of mother-goddess belongs to tantric tradition
According to S.K.Ramachandra Rao, the cults relating to the mother-goddess and female tutelary deities belong to the tantric tradition, the rituals involved in them clearly reveal this background, although symbolism and interpretations have in many cases been borrowed from the Vedic thought structure and were perfected by the staunch votaries of the Vedic tradition.15 This is also the view of S.K.Tiwari who says that the birthplace of Shaktism and Tantricism, the predominant forms of Hinduism was North-Eastern India or Assam, when there were no ancient Brahmanic settlements, no ancient centres of Vedic learning and Puranic traditions.16
The actual forms of Shakti and Shakti worship which became popular in the historical period do not appear to have been derived from early Vedic ideas, though the trace of the conception of Shakti may be found in the early Vedic literature. The various iconographic forms of the Mother-Goddess, the reference to their dwelling in the caves, all point out to the indebtedness of the Hindu cult of Shakti to the beliefs and practices of non-Vedic or non-Brahmanic peoples living in the forests and hilly regions of the country.17
Concept of Supreme Goddess Shakti culminated in Puranic period
As indicated in the archeological excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro and the literary works of the Vedic period, the worship of female deities in India goes back to a remote past, but the conception of a central goddess Devi as Shakti, to whom all other female deities were affiliated as her parts or incarnations, and the compilation of Puranic works dealing with her praise, nature, exploits and worship were matters of comparatively late ages. The Shakta Upapuranas like Devi Purana, Kalika Purana, Devi-bhagavata, Bhagavati Purana, Chandi Purana, Mahabhagavata, Devirahasya, etc., are all the works of comparatively late days.18
The conception of Shakti was fully discussed in the Puranas and many legends were imagined to explain the entry of the mother-goddess cult in various Hindu sects.19 The culmination of the Shakti conception is found in the Devimahatmya section of the Markandeya Purana. Sri, Durga, Candi, Annapurna, Jagaddhatri, etc., are some of the names of the mother-goddess Shakti. These names may represent different local goddesses fused into one Supreme Mother-Goddess. They are explained also as representing different attributes of the great Mother-Goddess.20
Sri Shankaracharya and the Shakti cult
The Shakta philosophy and rituals, expounded in Kashmir tantric works like Candrakala-Vidyastaka and Shubhagama Pancaka and in Gaudapada’s Subhagodaya relate to what is compendiously known as Sri Vidya or Brahmavidya, which is rather the practical course or sadhanasastra not only of the monism of the Upanishads, but also to a large extent of the final liberation expounded in the Tamil Shaiva philosophy known as Siddhantha.21
The worship of Devi (Shakti) was one among the six forms of saguna worship approved and propagated by Sri Shankaracharya. In the Saundaryalahari, he expounds Her greatness and Her identity with the Atman or Brahman. In all the advaita monasteries founded by Shankaracharya and his successors, the mystic secrets fo Sri Vidya and the worship of Sri Chakra are kept alive to this day. At Sringeri, one of the four oldest seats of the monastic order founded by Shankaracharya, the presiding deity Sharada Devi, who is enthroned on a Sri Chakra, symbolises the highest knowledge, ‘the knowledge of the Self’. Tradition ascribes to Shankaracharya and other seers the installation of the Sri Chakra in important temples. The most celebrated is that in the Kamakshi temple at Kanchi.22 But S.K.Ramachandra Rao says that the authorship of the Saundaryalahari is wrongly ascribed to Shankaracharya and he was entirely ignorant of Sri Chakra. It is probable that Vidyaranya who is regarded as a teacher in Shankaracharya’s line was proficient in the Sri Chakra cult. Associated with the founding of Vijayanagara Empire and with two pontificates, Sringeri and Kanchipuram he was a great spiritual, social and political force in south India. It may be due to his influence that the Sri Vidya cult spread in this part of the country.23
Antiquity of Durga worship
The worship of Durga has prevailed from ancient times and she was worshipped under various names and aspects. The Mahabharata (Virataparva and Bhishmaparva) contains two hymns addressed to Durga in which she is stated to be Vindhyavasini and found of blood and wine.24 In Mahabharata (Vanaparva), Durga is described as the daughter of Yasoda and Nanda and the sister of Vasudeva (Krishna). In Mahabharata (Bhishmaparva), there is reference to the different names of Durga like Kumari, Kali, Bhadrakali, Candi, Uma, Katyayani, etc. But as the dates from these passages in the Mahabharata are far from certain, no chronological conclusion can be stated. Literary works and coins supply some firm data about the antiquity of the Durga cult. References to Durga and her exploits are found in the works of Kalidasa. If we hold that Kalidasa flourished between 350-450 A.D. then it is quite probable that the worship of Durga may go back some centuries before 300 A.D. The evidence of coins lends support to this conclusion. A Simhavahini goddess is seen on the reverse of the coins of Chandragupta I of the Gupta dynasty (about 305-325 A.D.). On a coin of Kushana king Kanishka there is a figure of a goddess seated on a lion which is probably Durga and this shows that She was worshipped even earlier during first or second century A.D.25
Durga worship in South India
The form of Durga standing on the severed head of a buffalo is described in the Silappadikaram while the story of Sakkravalakkottam in the Manimekalai we hear about a temple of Durga. From this it appears that even in the pre-Pallava days temples for Durga were built in Tamilnadu.26 Among the numerous sculptures that stand as monuments to the cultural greatness of the Pallava and Pandya rule from 7th to 9th century A.D., are the panels, representing Mahishamardini, carved in monolithic and cave temples of south India. The members of the famous medieval trading corporation Aihole-500 were worshippers of Bhagavati Durga in whose honour they erected temple in different parts of the Deccan and south India.27 The structural temple of the goddess Durga at Aihole was erected by the Chalukyan kings who ruled between 550-642 A.D. We also find a figure of Durga slaying Mahishasura in cave number one at Badami. At Ellora in Rameshvar cave there is a carving of Durga slaying Mahishasura which probably belongs to 650 A.D.28
With the rise of the Cholas under Vijayala (850-870 A.D.) the cult of Durga entered a new phase in south India. The Tiruvalangadu Plates of Rajendra Chola says that Vijayala built a temple of Nishumbhamardini at Tanjore, and this aspect of Durga appears to have been popular during the early days of Chola period. This representation is found even in miniature bas-reliefs of many temple found in Tanjore district of Tamilnadu.29 In the Shiva temples of the early Chola period, a separate sub-shrine was assigned to Durga and in the later epochs, she was generally represented with four arms and standing on the head of Mahisha in a shrine or niche to the north of the sanctum.30
Ugra (ferocious) and Sowmya (gentle) goddesses
The Shakti cult has two aspects, the dynamic or the ferocious aspects and the benign or the beneficent aspect. In her ferocious aspect, she is differently called Chandi, Kali, Chamunda, Sati, etc.31 The ferocious or Ugra incarnations of Shakti are goddesses who are by nature black and dreadful and are always performing fearful and war like actions, killing the awful enemies of the humanity at large and safeguards their devotees interests. These deities are found of meat and wine and bali is an essential feature of their worship.32
In her benign aspect Shakti is known as Bhavani, Vijaya, Devi, Uma, Gauri, etc.33 These goddesses have a very charming personality and graceful character. They always help the people to have all their desires achieved and treat their devotees with motherly affection. These goddesses are offered vegetarian meal.34
Goddesses known for their brilliance
Some of the Goddesses like Bala Tripurasundari, Saubhagyabhuvaneshvari, Annapurna, Gayatri, Sarasvati, Lalita, Mukambika and Rajarajeshwari are described as mild and extremely beautiful and of dazzling brilliance.35
Goddesses related to Vishnu
There are some incarnations of Shakti related to Vishnu. Sometimes she incarnated to help him or as a consort of his incarnation. All these are benign goddesses like Vaishnavi, Radha, Mahalakshmi, Yogamaya Mahamaya, etc., work for the welfare of the world.36
Folk goddesses
Folk goddesses called as Yoginis are associated with the fearful forms of Devi and are worshipped with bali. These Yoginis are sometimes represented as eight fairies or sorceresses created by Durga and sometimes as mere forms of Durga, 60 or 65 in number and capable of being multiplied to the number of ten millions.37
Saptamatrikas
Another type of goddesses are the Saptamatrikas or seven mothers who according to Devi Purana are very kind like the human mothers, specially for the children.38 The names of these goddesses are Brahmi, Maheshvari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Mahendri and Chamunda. Sometimes with Mahalakshmi they are counted as eight mothers.39
Village goddesses
Almost every village in south India has a shrine for village goddesses whose worship is generally performed by non-Brahmins. Besides animal sacrifices, some of the peculiar ceremonies which take place in these temples are fire-walking, lashing oneself with a whip, piercing a metallic wire right through the tongue or through the sides of the mouth, carrying on head, the Karagam (decorated pot), lamps of ghee, or earthen pots with blazing fire in them. In honour of these deities, annual festivals called jatras are held.40
The historical development of the Shakti cult appears to draw much from non-Vedic and pre-Vedic sources of religious traditions. But the ingenuity and speculative genius of the Brahmanas succeeded in grafting the religious beliefs on the non-Brahmanic and non-Vedic people on the stem of Vedic religion or philosophy. The study of the evolution of Shakti worship in India gives another proof of the assimilative character of the ancient Indian religion.41
Reference
Narendra Nath Bhattacharya – History of Shakta Religion, Munshiram Manoharlal Publisher Pvt Ltd, 1974, p.1
Shashi Bhusan Das Gupta – Aspects of Indian Religious Thought, A.Mukherjee & Co Pvt Ltd, Calcutta, 1957, pp: 43,44
Ibid, pp: 42,43
Ibid, pp: 74,75,76
V.R.Ramachandra Dikshitar – The Lalita Cult, University of Madras, 1942, p.37
Narendra Nath Bhattacharya – Op.Cit, p. 49
B.P.Sinha – Evolution of Shakti worship in India, D.C.Sircar Edited, The Sakti cult and Tara, University of Calcutta, 1960, pp: 47,48,49
Ibid, p. 50
Narendra Nath Bhattacharya – Op.Cit, p. 31
R.C.Hazra – Studies in the Upapuranas, vol II, Sanskrit College, Calcutta, 1963, p. 17
Ibid, pp: 18,19,20
Ibid, p. 21
S.K.Tiwari – Tribal Roots of Hinduism, Sarup & Sons, New Delhi, 2002, p .128
Ibid, p .132
S.K.Ramachandra Rao- Sri Vidya Kosha, Sri Satguru Publications, New Delhi, 2000, p. 178
S.K.Tiwari, Op.Cit, p.133
B.P.Sinha, Op.Cit, p. 51
R.C.Hazra, Op.Cit, p.1
B.P.Sinha, Op.Cit, p. 52
Ibid, p.54
K.R.Venkataraman – Sakti Cult in South India, Haridas Bhattacharyya, Editor, The Cultural Heritage of India, vol- IV, The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta, 1956, p. 255
Ibid, p.256
P.V.Kane – History of Dharmasastra, vol-2, part-2, BORI, Poona, 1941, p. 738
P.V.Kane – History of Dharmasastra, vol-5, part-I, BORI, Poona, 1958, pp: 185,186
Narendra Nath Bhattacharya – Op.Cit, p. 83
K.R.Venkataraman – Sakti Cult in South India, Op.Cit, pp: 252,253
Narendra Nath Bhattacharya – Op.Cit, pp: 82,83
Ibid, p.100
K.R.Venkataraman – Sakti Cult in South India, Op.Cit, p. 253
T.V.Mahalingam – The cult of Sakti in Tamilnadu, D.C.Sircar Edited, The Sakti cult and Tara, University of Calcutta, 1960, p. 17
Pushpendra Kumar – Sakti Cult in Ancient India (with special reference to the Puranic literature), Bhartiya Publishing House, Varanasi, 1974, p. 260
T.V.Mahalingam, Op.Cit, p. 17
Pushpendra Kumar, Op.Cit, p. 241
H.Krishna Sastri – South Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses, Madras Government Press, 1916, 218,220
Pushpendra Kumar, Op.Cit, pp: 236,237,239
Ibid, p. 236
Ibid, p. 235
H.Krishna Sastri, Op.Cit, p. 190
Ibid, pp: 223,226,227
B.P.Sinha, Op.Cit, pp: 54, 55
Also see
https://ithihas.wordpress.com/2018/01/27/tantra-a-brief-introduction-part-ii/
https://ithihas.wordpress.com/2018/02/05/tantra-a-brief-introduction-part-iii/