Narasimha, the Man-Lion incarnation of Vishnu

Among the ten Avataras (incarnations) of God Vishnu still worshiped in Indian temples, that of Rama and Krishna are very popular and is followed by Narasimha. While the avataras of Rama and Krishna were in human form, that of Narasimha was in therianthropic form (half-lion and half-man). Unlike Rama and Krishna, the images of Narasimha are also found in Shaiva temples. Compared to Rama and Krishna who were historical figures, Narasimha though considered by some scholars as a historical person, has lots of mythological elements woven around his personality. As an avatara of Vishnu the development of the legend of Narasimha has passed through various stages and was also influenced by folk and tantric elements. Once upon a time Narasimha was worshiped all over India, but now his worship is confined to south India and the state of Odisha.

Historicity of Narasimha

Hiranyakashipu was the son of Kashyapa by his wife Diti, while Narasimha was the son of Vivasvan who was also the son of Kashyapa by his other wife Aditi. The quarrel between them was for the share in yajna, i.e., a share in the revenue of the kingdom. The fight between them was the first Devasurasangrama in which Hiranyakashipu was killed by Narasimha. It is very likely that Narasimha was a human being like Rama and Krishna who was later deified. In the view of D.R.Mankad, the Daityas (children of Diti) to which Hiranyakashipu belonged were straight forward, simple and trustworthy in character whereas the Devas (children of Aditi) to which Narasimha belonged were dishonourable and deceitful in nature. The Daityas were rash but not dishonest. But the Devas like Narasimha, Varaha and Vamana concealed their identity and took other forms to deceive the Daityas.¹

According to Mohan Singh, a king named Kashipu was called Hiranyakashipu for he had amassed much wealth and conquered very large territories. Hiranyakashipu probably was not a follower of Vedic cult and had antagonized the followers of that cult. When in a fight between a lion, Hiranyakashipu was killed, it was interpreted by the followers of the Vedic cult as being accomplished by the god, Hari which also means lion in Sanskrit.²

Genesis of Narasimha’s legend

A Vedic legend has reference to Indra having cut off the head of Namuci (a demon) with the foam of water. It is said that Indra had agreed with Namuci that he would not slay him by day or by night, with the dry or moist or with the palm or with the fist or with staff or bow.³ Somewhat similar to the above episode, Hiranyakashipu had obtained a boon from Brahma that he was not to be killed by a human or beast, nor die either in the day or night and no weapon of any kind should injure him. Hence we find Vishnu assuming the form of Narasimha (half-lion, half-man) who tore Hiranyakashipu with his claws at the time of lingering twilight forming the junction between day and night.⁴ Hence P.V.Kane is of the view that the story of killing Hiranyakashipu by Narasimha in the man-lion form was inspired by the story of the slaughter of the demon, Namuci by Indra at dawn with the foam of water.

Attributes of Indra transferred to Vishnu

According to M.V.Vaidya, the Puranas represent a state of thought-transition when the Vedic deities are receding into background and the great triad of high-gods is emerging to dominate the whole field of religious expression. In this transition, it is natural that those attributes which once qualified the erstwhile important god are pressed in the service of another who replaces him in authority. Thus in the new order Indra yields his place to Vishnu. The legend of Hiranyakashipu belongs to this category as it presents, in essentials, the myth of killing of Namuci by Indra transferred to the credit of Vishnu but with a change in environment and a shift in emphasis. The legend being popular, passed in the hands of the poets of Puranas, who worked on it and eventually it deteriorate into a sectarian story in glorification of the avataras of Vishnu.⁵

Development of Narasimha’s legend in the Puranas

The Vedic literature contains no reference to a deity having the form of lion or half-man and half-lion. Reference to Narasimha in the Taittriya Aranyaka is a later composition written sometimes in the early centuries of the Christian era.⁶

It is interesting to know how the legend of Narasimha developed in the Puranas in various stages. Puranas like Agni Purana, Vayu Purana, Brahma Purana, Skanda Purana and Vishnudharmottara Purana which contain the legend of Narasimha have no reference to Prahlada at all.⁷ In the second stage of the development of Narasimha legend, we have Puranas like Padma Purana (5^th kanda), Matsya Purana Saura Purana and Kurma Purana which have depicted Prahlada as a grown up person who even fought against Vishnu, but later realizes his divinity and asks his father Hiranyakashipu to surrender to him (Narasimha).⁸ Finally in the third stage, we have Puranas like Vishnu Purana, Narasimha Purana, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana (6^th kanda) where Prahlada is depicted as a child and a devotee of Vishnu from the beginning and for that reason his father, Hiranyakashipu tortures him and to save Prahlada, Vishnu emerges from a pillar in the form of Narasimha and slays Hiranyakashipu.⁹ Hence while we find the reason for killing Hiranyakashipu as given in the Mahabharatha (Shanti parva) was because he was destroying the sacrifices meant for the deities,¹⁰ while in Puranas like Vishnu Purana, Narasimha Purana, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana (6^th kanda) the reason for his killing by Narasimha was because he was torturing Prahlada a devotee of Vishnu.

Narasimha’s association with Shaivism

In the Shatarudra Samhita of the Shiva Purana an attempt to establish the supremacy of Shaivism over Vaishnavism can be observed. According to this Purana even after the killing of Hiranyakashipu, the anger of Narasimha did not subside and hence the gods requested Lord Shiva to pacify the fury of Narasimha. Shiva orders Virabhadra to go and pacify Narasimha with soothing words. When his attempt fails, on Shiva’s advice, Virabhadra assumed the form of Sharabha, caught hold of Narasimha and cut off his head and peeled his skin and offered it to Shiva who wore it. Shiva then tells the gods that as Narasimha has merged within himself like water in water and milk in milk, devotees who worship Narasimha by praising him will please Shiva and devotees who praise Shiva will please Narasimha. The Linga Purana also contains the above story of Sharabha killing Narasimha. However in the end both the Puranas tried to maintain a balance between Shaivism and Vaishnavism by the ordain given by Shiva that Vishnu is to be worshipped in the form of Narasimha by devotees who wish to obtain prosperity.¹¹

Narasimha- Originally a Lion deity

Narasimha originally was a lion deity. This is also indicated by such a Puranic statement which tells us that in the battle against Hiranyakashipu, lions born out of the body of Narasimha devoured the Danava. For instance in the Matsya Purana, it is not the lion-man but lion itself that arrives at Hiranyakashipu’s court hall and kills him. This view is further confirmed by the evidence of a sculptured panel discovered at a site called Kondamotu on the outskirts of Piduguralla village in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. The panel shows in base relief six standing figures who are identified as Pradyumna, Visnu, Narasimha, Krishna, Samkarsanda and Aniruddha. Narasimha is depicted as a couchant lion with the only difference that two hands are added to the figure at the neck level and with these he holds gada and chakra, the Vaishnava attributes. This panel is dated late 3^rd or 4^th century A.D. and the earliest iconographic representation of Narasimha.¹² One of the most important temples of Narasimha in Odisha, Narasimhanatha in Padampur (Sambalpur) is a theriomorphic deity. The image worshipped there is supposed to represent Narasimha in the shape of a cat. Also in places like Mangalagiri and Akkirapalli in Andhra Pradesh, the head of a lion and tiger are worshipped as Narasimha.¹³ It was only in the later Gupta sculptures of the north and at Badami and Ellora that the deity is shown with the lion’s head and a human body.¹⁴

Influence of Tantric ideas

Tantrism professes the worship of the female principle (shakti) and the erotic practices connected with it and also the worship of the furious and the formidable aspect of the divine. For instance the worship of deities like Kali and Bhairava, etc., are undertaken mainly with a view to counteract the unpleasant events like disease and misfortune, to keep off dangers, to ward off evil, to destroy the enemies and also to achieve material benefits which these deities are believed to bestow upon the worshipper immediately. The strong influence of the Tantric ideas led Vishnuism to develop the concept of Narasimha- originally only an incarnation of Vishnu to an independent and important deity with furious character who destroys the evils and the dangers befalling his worshippers and grants him immediately worldly benefits. Narasimha in other words, is a Vishnite version of the tantric practice of the worship of the furious deities.¹⁵

Popular cult absorbed into Vaishnavism

Narasimha was originally a dreadful god like the Vinayakas; to be propitiated for his wrath. The Vishnudharmottara Purana describes his worship for effects of evil stars, planets and other supernatural agencies and for avoiding the dangers of thieves, enemies and wild animals in the dark. The Narasimha stotra and Narasimha mantra are deemed to be efficacious for curing diseases and preventing calamities.¹⁶

The Vishnudharmottara Purana places the Man-Lion incarnation of the god in the Madra country. The Madrakas were a people living in central Punjab with their capital at Sialkot. To this day, the worship of Narasimha is very popular in Punjab especially in the Kangra district and men and women worship this god in the form of a sacred coconut on every sunday. The worshippers of Narasimha also wear on the arm, an amulet containing the picture of the god in the form of a man and it is considered highly sacred. It is very probable that the god Narasimha was the centre of a popular cult flourishing in some part of Punjab and in the early centuries of the Christian era, his worship was absorbed into Vaishnavism by recognizing him as an incarnation of Vishnu.¹⁷

Influence of Folk religion

In eastern Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, Brahmanism assimilated, transformed and even supplanted many tribal cults and the story of Narasimha’s emergence from a pillar reflects the influence of an aboriginal worship of some pillar deity (Goddess Stambheshvari) on Vaishnavism through the cult of Narasimha.¹⁸

Most of the temples dedicated to Narasimha in the Deccan are situated on the hill tops and the aboriginal tribes of these areas are known to worship mountain deities. For instance the hill tribes of the Chenchus worship the god Narasimhasvami enshrined at Ahobalam in Kurnool and call him Obalesudu.¹⁹

Reference to Narasimha in inscriptions

Prakrit inscriptions of the 1^st and 2^nd century A.D. from Sanchi, Mathura and other places have name like Simhadatta (dedicated to the man-lion form of Vishnu) and Simharakshita (protected by Narasimha incarnation) which shows that Narasimha incarnation of Vishnu became popular in the early centuries of the Christian era. The Alina copper plate record of the Maitraka dynasty of Vallabhi in Gujarat state issued in the year 766 A.D. has reference to the Narasimha avatara.²⁰ Some of the texts belonging to Narasimha cult are the Narasimha Purva Tapaniya Upanishad and Narasimha Uttara Tapaniya Upanishad and the Narasimha Samhita and the Narasimha Upapurana composed between 500-900 A.D.²¹

Narasimha in Art

According to the Vihagendra Samhita, there are 74 forms of Narasimha icon of which nine are fairly popular. They are Yoga-Narasimha (in meditative pose), Bhoga-Narasimha (seated along with Lakshmi and also known as Lakshmi-Narasimha), Ugra-Narasimha (tearing open the breast of Hiranyakashipu), Jwala-Narasimha (ferocious and flaming), Varada-Narasimha (granting a boon to and blessing Prahlada), Sthanu-Narasimha (coming out the pillar), Sthanaka-Narasimha (standing), Nitya-Narasimha (dancing) and Kevala-Narasimha (seated alone in a special yogic posture with one leg raised above the other).²²

The earliest representation of god Narasimha is on a clay seal discovered at Basarh in Bihar and assigned to the early Gupta or just the pre-Gupta period. The seal shows Narasimha in the Lalitasana pose seated on a high pedestal, his right arm raised and the left arm resting on his hips.²³

Early images of Narasimha together with the boar and dwarf forms of Vishnu are found in the rock-cut temples at Udayagiri, Badami and Mamallapuram belonging respectively to the Gupta, early Chalukya and Pallava periods.²⁴

In the southern corner of the Dashaavatara temple at Deogadh in Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh, a figure of Narasimha is seen in a caitya window seated on a lotus holding the discus, the club and the conch. At Sindursi in the Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh, rock-cut sculpture depict the god Vishnu in various forms, standing, sleeping on his serpent bed and in his Narasimha form. An image of Narasimha found at Besnagar and ascribed to 6^th century A.D. is now kept in the Gwalior Museum.²⁵

Popularity of Narasimha worship

Names like Simhavarman, Narasimhavarman and Simhavishnu were popular in the family belonging to the Pallava dynasty of south India. The earliest such name in the family of the Pallava kings is that of Simhavarman of the Manchikallu inscription assigned to the 4^th century A.D. The Narasimha form of Vishnu thus seems to have been a favourite deity with the Pallava dynasty. Sewell’s Historical Inscriptions of South India enumerates no less than 40 kings of the early and medieval periods who bore the name Narasimha. Most of the rulers flourished in south India. Among the Gupta rulers we have Narasimha Gupta Baladitya who bore the name Narasimha. In Bengal king Lakshmanasena of the Sena dynasty was devoted to Narasimha as evidenced from a record which describes him as Parama Narasimha.²⁶

Narasimha cult is non-sectarian

The Narasimha cult is not sectarian. According to the traditional biographies of Adi Shankaracharya, a mere hunter in a forest was able to have a darshan of Narasimha after a search lasting for a few hours, which he undertook at the instance of Padmapada, one of the disciples of Adi Shankaracharya. Padmapada was a devotee of Narasimha and invoked his assistance for saving Shankaracharya from a Kapalika, who was about to kill Shankaracharya. As Narasimha is regarded as having the amsa or power of Rudra, Narasimha’s icons are therefore found in Shiva temples. Sankaracharya on one occasion recited the Lakshminarasimha Stotra for saving his body from the scorching fire.²⁷

Narasimha temple of yore

Most of the ancient and popular temples belonging to Narasimha are found in south India. The famous of these are Ahobalam and Simhachalam in Andhra Pradesh. Ahobalam located in Kurnool district of A.P. is one of the 108 divyadesam ( (holy places) for the Sri Vaishnavas. As this place contains all the nine forms of Narasimha within a radius of ten miles, this place is called Navanarasimhakshetra.²⁸ In Simhachalam located in Vishakapattanam district, the presiding deity is called Varahanarasimhaswamy. The deity has two hands with the head of a lion and a human torso. The image is covered with sandal paste and made to appear like a Linga. Only once in a year on the day of Akshayatritiya, the original image of Varahanarasimha is shown to the public by removing the sandal paste.

In Tamilnadu the Narasimha temple at Sholinghur or Ghadikachalam is praised by the Tamil saint Tirumangai Alvar in his Periya Tirumozhi as one of the 108 divyadesams of Sri Vaishnavas. Other saints like Peyalvar and Nammalvar also have praised this lord of Sholinghur.³⁰ About 50 kms from the city of Salem is located Nammakal which is famous for the rock-cut sculptures of Narasimha.³¹ In Karnataka a gigantic monolith of Ugranarasimha carved out of a single boulder, 6.7 meters in height is found at Hampi. This work was executed in 1526 during the rule of Krishnadevaraya.³² Another Narasimha temple of antiquity in India is located at Joshi Mutt in Uttaranchal which is about 1200 years old. The image of the deity here is said to be installed by Sri Shankaracharya himself.³³

Narasimha is the guardian deity of the Jagannatha temple at Puri and all the performances beginning from cooking to puja are preceded by offerings to Narasimha first.³⁴ The Narasimha temple located in the Jagannatha temple complex is dated about 10^th century A.D. and probably was constructed prior to Jagannatha temple. Due to the association of Narasimha with the Jagannatha cult, Narasimha enjoys much reverence in Odisha. There are more than 100 Narasimha temples with rich endowments in this state.³⁵ In modern times pratishtha of new images of Narasimha is rare due to a belief that Narasimha being an ugra-murti, if not properly worshipped in due form, will burn down villages or otherwise cause harm to the people.³⁶

Reference

1. D.R.Mankad – The Twelve Devasurasangramas, Journal of the Oriental Institute, M.S.University of Baroda, Baroda, vol xii, No.3, March, 1963, pp: 220-229

2. Mohan Singh – The Legend of Prahlada, QJMS, vol-31 (2), 1940, p.104

3. P.V.Kane – History of Dharmasastra, vol II, part 2, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poone, 1941, pp: 718,719

4. T.A.Gopinath Rao – Elements of Hindu Iconography, vol- 1, part 1, Madras, 1914, p.149

5. M.V.Vaidya – The Palace of Hiranyakashipu, ABORI, vol-xxii, 1942, pp: 609, 610

6. Suvira Jaiswal - Evolution of the Narasimha Legend and its possible sources, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol-34, 1973, p.140

7. K.Venkata Krishna – A Study of Narasimha Cult in Sanskrit Literature, PhD thesis, Department of Sanskrit, Sri Venkateshwara University, Tirupati, 2010, pp: 3,6

8. Ibid, pp: 7,9,10

9. Ibid, pp: 17-29

10. Ibid, p.2

11. Ibid, pp, 13-16

12. Suvira Jaiswal, Op.Cit, p.143

13. Anncharlott Eschmann, Hermann Kulke, Gaya Charan Tripathi, Edited – The Cult of Jagannath and the Regional Tradition of Orissa, Manohar Publication, New Delhi, 1986, pp: 107,108

14. Suvira Jaiswal, Op.Cit, p.144

15. Anncharlott Eschmann, Hermann Kulke, Gaya Charan Tripathi, Edited – Op.Cit, pp: 43,44

16. Suvira Jaiswal- The Origin and Development of Vaisnavism (from 200 B.C. to A.D.500), Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1967, pp: 122,123

17. Ibid

18. Suvira Jaiswal - Evolution of the Narasimha Legend and its possible sources, Op.Cit, p. 145

19. Ibid, p. 148

20. D.C.Sircar- Studies in the Religious life of Ancient and Medieval India, Motilal Banarsidas, p. 266

21. Indira S Aiyar – Lord Narasimha: Iconography and Literature, Tattvaloka, vol- xv, No.2, June/July, 1992, p.26

22. R.K.Sheshadri – The Concept and Image of Narasimha, Tattvaloka, Op.Cit, p.29

23. Indira S Aiyar, Op.Cit, p.24

24. D.C.Sircar – Op.Cit, p.268

25. Suvira Jaiswal- The Origin and Development of Vaisnavism, Op.Cit, pp:185,202

26. D.C.Sircar – Op.Cit, p.267

27. R.K. Sheshadri, Op.Cit, p.28

28. K.Venkata Krishna, Op.Cit, p.75

29. Ibid, pp: 80,81

30. Ibid, p. 107

31. Ibid, p. 109

32. Ibid, p. 124

33. Ibid, p. 145

34. Anncharlott Eschmann, Hermann Kulke, Gaya Charan Tripathi, Edited – Op.Cit, p. 112

35. K.Venkata Krishna, Op.Cit, pp: 139,140

36. T.A.Gopinath Rao, Op.Cit, p.40

Hinduism – A Brief Summary

Derivation of the word Hindu

The word Hindu (in the form ‘Hidu’) appears to have been applied by the Persian Emperors Darius (522-486 B.C.) and Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) to the territory and people to the west and to the east of river Sindhu, while the Greeks referred to the people in the same region as ‘Indoi’ from which comes the word Indian. The ancient Parsi scripture- Vendidad mentions sixteen lands, the fifteenth being Hapta Hindu (Sapta Sindhu). The Sanskrit ‘Sa’ is changed to ‘Ha’ even now in some parts of India.¹ Panini uses the word ‘Sindhu’ as the name of a country. Saindhava means one who or whose ancestors lived in the Sindhu country.²

From Geographical connotation to Religious connotation

It is most striking that people we now call Hindus never used this term to describe themselves. The Vedas, the Ramayana and the Bhagavad Gita which today are seen by many as the religious texts of the Hindus, do not employ the word Hindu. The term was first used by the Achaemenid Persians to describe all those people who lived on or beyond the banks of river Sindhu. It was only under the Muslim rulers of India that the term began to gain a religious connotation (from the earlier geographical connotation). But it was not until colonial times that the term Hinduism was coined and acquired wide currency as referring collectively to a wide variety of religious communities, some of them with distinct traditions and opposed practices. Communities like the Shaivites, Vaishnavites and Lingayats, each with their own history and specific view of the world were tied together under the blanket category Hinduism. Simultaneously, cultural, administrative and political changes, particularly social mobility, census operations, missionary activities and the rise of new groups like Arya Samaj endowed the term with meanings that we have come to associate with it today.³

Rajaram Mohan Roy, the first Hindu to use the word Hinduism

The term Hinduism seems first to have made an appearance in the early 19^th century and gradually gained provenance in the decades thereafter. Eighteenth century references to the religion of the Gentoos were gradually supplanted in the 19^th century by references to the religion of the Hindus. A preference for the Persian as opposed to the Portuguese designation of the Indian people. (Heathens was another word used to designate the Hindus by Christian missionaries). However it was not until the 19th century proper that the term Hinduism became used as a signifier of a unified all-embracing and independent religious entity in both western and Indian circles. The Oxford English Dictionary traces Hindooism to an 1829 reference in the Bengalee (vol-45) and also refers to an 1858 usage by the German Indologist Max Muller. Dermot Killingley however cites a reference to Hindooism by Rajaram Mohan Roy in 1816. As Killingley suggests Rajaram Mohan Roy was probably the first Hindu to use the word Hinduism.⁴

The word Hindu used as a title and as a religious connotation even earlier

The rulers of Vijayanagara kingdom like Bukka I, Devaraya II and Krishnadevaraya and the ruler of Mewar, Maharana Kumbhakarna had the title- hinduraya suratrana, that is, Sultan among Hindu kings and Maharana Pratap Simha of Mewar had the title, hindu kula kamala divakara, that is, the sun which brings bloom to the lotus of the Hindu nation.⁵ The word Hindu as a religious connotation was used in vernacular Hindu literature by poet-saints like Ekanath (1533-1599 A.D.), Kabir (1450-1520 A.D.), Vidyapati (1352-1448 A.D.) and Anantadas (born 1488 A.D.) in their works. According to David N Lorenzen, the beginning of medieval and modern Hinduism took shape when the mythology of gods like Vishnu, Shiva and Devi were composed in the Puranas around 300-600 A.D.⁶

Hinduism, a combination of religious ideologies

Hinduism is not a single religion like Islam or Christianity. It is a universe of religions. It represents the religious responses of different races and classes at various stages of cultural evolution. It includes the religious response of the aborigines, of persons who are bound down by custom and superstition and that of persons who have transcended them.⁷

In the words of P.V.Kane, Hinduism is a combination of many systems and religious ideologies including Vedic ritualism, Vedantic thought, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and primeval cults, adapted to the requirements of different men and communities with great disparities of intellectual and spiritual attainments.⁸

The capacity to incorporate and amalgamate other religions and alien cults in Hinduism is possible because of two basic Hindu doctrines: that God or Brahman is within everything, and can therefore appear everywhere, and that whoever is born in India is essentially a Hindu. The incorporation of aboriginal cults has occurred in Hinduism from the very beginnings. However, such incorporations became particularly prevalent in post-Buddhist times. To give examples, the Jagannath temple at Puri, one of the most important temple of India and patronized by many kings enshrines a deity of tribal origin. Similarly the most important features of the mythology and cult of Durga developed only in early medieval times taking up aboriginal elements. The sacrifice offered to Devi, for instance, is different from the Vedic form of sacrifice and even occasionally retains the idea of human sacrifice.⁹

Hinduism offers choice to its adherents

Hinduism comprises monism, pantheism, monotheism, polytheism, animism and even atheism (nirishvaravada) of the Samkhya type. Even those who are monotheists have the choice to worship God in the form of either Shiva, Vishnu or Shakti. With regards to prayers also Hinduism offers choice to its adherents. One may pray through Vedic hymns or non-Vedic hymns or even choose to compose one’s own prayer. It is not even necessary to pray to God and one may choose to contemplate him. The path to the realization of God is through bhakti, karma and jnana. Bhakti may manifest itself through prayer, song or dance or idol worship. Karma may be ritualistic or non-ritualistic and even rituals practiced may not be the same. Even the scriptures considered holy by the Hindus are divergent. For some it is the Vedas, for others it is the Puranas. But majority of the Hindus depend for their religious instruction mainly on custom, tradition and popular songs.¹⁰

Characteristics of Hinduism

Hinduism does not venerate any particular person as its sole prophet or founder nor recognize any particular book as its absolute authoritative scripture. Further Hinduism does not insist on any particular religious practice as being obligatory nor does it accept any doctrine as its dogma.¹¹

By the very nature of its origin and growth, Hinduism has been exceedingly tolerant. As Hindu worship is personal rather than congregational in character, Hinduism allows its adherents freedom to worship his chosen divinity (ishtadevata).¹²

Hinduism is a dynamic religion which has exhibited, throughout history, a remarkable elasticity and responsiveness to the needs of different communities and to the demands of different ages and regions. It has never hesitant to sponsor new scriptures, new gods and new institutions.¹³

By and large, Hinduism has always tended to incorporate and assimilate new ideas and practices. It is a religion untrammeled by any fixed creeds, dogmas and rituals.¹⁴

One of the basic assumptions of Hinduism is that though religious practices and beliefs were bound to change according to different times and different climes, they could all be comprehended within a larger unity. Accordingly, Hinduism has always been variable, elastic and receptive.¹⁵

^{Lastly Hinduism is in a sense, an ethnic religion. It is not either propagated among or imposed upon the people. The Hindus are verily born and grow in Hinduism though many of them do not believe in many of its doctrines and practices. But this does not forfeits their claim to be called as Hindus.16}

Does Hinduism discriminate against people based on caste?

Caste exclusiveness and caste discrimination was practiced by the followers of Vedic cult. It was these followers who later composed Dharmasastras which denied the Shudras to study the Vedas or partake in Vedic sacrifices. But Vedic cult is a part of Hinduism and not Hinduism itself.

As Wilhelm Halbfass has observed, the Vedic texts contain no Hindu dogma, no basis for a creed of Hinduism, no clear guidelines for the Hindu way of life. The Vedic texts provide no clear identifiable basis for the cyclical world-view, the doctrine of Karma and rebirth, the ethical principle of ahimsa and the doctrine of final liberation (Moksha). Also the Hindu pantheon, the forms of worship and devotion and the temple cult are not Vedic.¹⁷

According to R.N.Dandekar, historical Hinduism arose as a kind of reaction against the peculiar religio-philosophical conditions which had been engendered by Vedism- particularly by its later phases. But being realistic and pragmatic the sponsors of historical Hinduism did not alienate completely from it and professed an allegiance to the Veda to encounter with the so-called heretic religious movements of the early post-Vedic period.¹⁸

How did the impression that Hinduism is discriminatory gained ground

The earliest written religious texts of India written in Sanskrit like the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and Dharmashastras belonged to the Vedic cult, whose main followers were the Brahmins. When the Europeans including the English wanted to gain information about Hinduism, they approached the Brahmins as they alone knew Sanskrit and could explain to them about the contents of their texts. The Brahmins of that period though professing allegiance to various sects like Smarta, Vaishnava, Shaiva and Shakta provided information contained in the Vedic texts and an impression was created that Hinduism was Vedic religion. The Europeans had these texts translated into European languages including English and highlighted the discriminatory practices found in these texts. This information naturally entered in the history text books meant for schools and colleges where Hindu religion was equated with the Vedic religion. Hence the impression that Hinduism was a religion based on discriminatory practices was firmly implanted in the minds of the educated class. Also research on popular sects like Shaivas, Vaishnavas, the role of Tantras, assimilation of folk deities in Hinduism and similar such subjects had not taken place. Therefore intellectuals like Baba Saheb Ambedkar criticized Hinduism for its discriminatory practices. Probably Ambedkar was not aware of the Lingayat sect popular in the then southern parts of Bombay Presidency. Otherwise he would have surely embraced the Lingayat faith which is based on equality and bereft of superstitious ideas.

Hence it is this false notion of equating Vedism also called Brahmanism with Hinduism which has led people to believe that Hinduism is discriminative in nature. But the fact is Vedism is only a part of Hinduism which contains various Mathas (religious viewpoint) and Sampradayas (religious sects). Also as all religious sects of Hinduism (except for the Vedic cult) provides spiritual access to the Shudras and admit them into their orders, the allegation that Hinduism is discriminatory is totally wrong.

Why is the caste system still in India?

Now a question arises if only the followers of Vedic cult practiced caste exclusiveness, how come the Shudras themselves are divided into hundreds of castes and do not enter into matrimonial alliance with each other? The answer to this probably lies in the assumption that from time immemorial people of India engaged in different professions had formed into separate groups. Probably to protect the skills of their trade/professions, they married among themselves and this later became a custom. But unlike the Brahmins these groups never considered themselves superior to other groups and demeaned them nor claimed special privileges. This shows that Hinduism as a religion has nothing to do with caste, which was a social organization.

Reference

1. P.V.Kane – History of Dharmashastras, vol – 5, part 2, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1962, p.1613

2. Ibid, p.1614

3. Harjot Oberoi – The Construction of Religious Boundaries : Culture, Identity and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition, The University of Chicago Press, 1994, pp:16,17

4. Richard King – Orientalism and the Modern Myth of Hinduism, Numen, vol 46, no. 2, 1999, p.165

5. Sitaram Goel – Hindus and Hinduism- Manipulation of Meanings, Voice of India, New Delhi, 2003, pp: 7-9

6. David N Lorenzen – Who invented Hinduism? Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol.41, No.4, October, 1999, pp: 648,655

7. G.Hanumantha Rao – What is Hinduism?, in Prof. M.Hiriyanna Commemoration Volume, Published by Prof. M.Hiriyanna Commemoration Volume Committee, Mysore, 1952

8. P.V.Kane, Op.Cit, p.1621

9. Anncharlott Eschmann, Hermann Kulke, Gaya Charan Tripathi, Edited – The Cult of Jagannath and the Regional Tradition of Orissa, Manohar Publication, New Delhi, 1986, pp:79,80

10. G.Hanumantha Rao, Op.Cit, pp: 22,23

11. R.N.Dandekar- Insight into Hinduism, Ajanta Publication, Delhi, 1979, p.1

12. Ibid, p.5

13. Ibid

14. Ibid

15. Ibid

16. Ibid, p.2

17. Wilhelm Halbfass – Tradition and Reflection, Explorations in Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, 1991, pp:1,2

18. R.N.Dandekar- Op.Cit, p.13