Sri Krishna’s role in the decline of the Vedic cult

A historical survey of religious cults in India shows that after a period of flourish, many cults were discarded or replaced by a new cult or assimilated and amalgamated into a more robust form of belief and system of worship.¹ One such cult which lost its significance over a period of time was the Indra cult and Sri Krishna played an important role in its decline.

Characteristics of Indra and his cult

A human hero, Indra attained godhead by virtue of his miraculous exploits.² Indra represented mainly valour and force, but he combines with those traits certain others, which one would not like to associate with the idea of the divine. Thus he is vain and boastful and is found of an intoxicating drink, Soma.³

In Indra cult or Vedic religion, powers of nature like fire, wind, sun, etc., were personified and hymns addressing these gods were uttered while offering materials like milk, grain and ghee to them. The motive was to secure the objects of ordinary desire-children, cattle, etc., or to get one’s enemy out of the way. Later this childlike worship gave way to an organised hieratic sacrificial cult.⁴

Sri Krishna's cult - A reaction against the barren excesses of the Vedas

As a reaction against the barren excesses of the Vedas, Sri Krishna started a new cult also known as Bhagavatism and was one of the reform movements started against the domination of the Brahmins and the sacrifices performed by them. Dr. Bhandarkar holds the opinion that the cult of Vasudeva (Krishna) was formed from the same intellectual ferment which produced Buddhism and Jainism, but it was a religious reform. It repudiated the slaughter of animals and the inefficiency of the sacrificial ritual and advocated the path of devotion as the way of salvation. This cult which was flourishing in the fourth B.C. was essentially a Kshatriya movement and was not much favoured by the Brahmins.⁵

Evidence to the fall of Indra and rise of Krishna

From the days of Rigveda, a festival of Indra connected with his worship was celebrated wherein a pole (Indra dhvaja) bearing an image of Indra was exhibited. This is referred in Rig Veda, Ramayana, Mahabharata and also Silappadhikaram, a Tamil epic.⁶ In Harivamsa, it is said that Sri Krishna challenged the utility of observing the festival in honour of Indra and pleads for a worship of the Hills and the Woods- which are the grazing grounds for the cattle. Krishna initiates a new form of worship-Giri yajna, a sacrifice in honour of the wooded hill Govardhana. Indra who was enraged at this insult creates a furious shower of rain, storm and thunder. Krishna is said to have uprooted the hill and held it aloft by his right hand and provided cover from the elements. Indra after having watched the miracle of the lifting of the Govardhana hill and saving the cattle came and paid respects to Krishna.⁷

Reference to the above story is also found in Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Vishnu Purana and Srimad Bhagavata.⁸ This incident is also represented in art and can be found in a relief dated third century A.D. in the Mathura Museum and at Krishna Mandapa cave at Mahabalipuram, dated 7th century A.D. to cite a few.⁹

According to Dhirendra Nath Pal, this incident might be an allegory signifying that the Indra worshippers finding their god slighted attacked the Gopas and made an attempt to destroy their new sacrifice and that Krishna in this armed attack protected the hill on which the Gopas took shelter.¹⁰

Bhagavad Gita questions the efficacy of Vedas

Sri Krishna not only challenged the utility of observing the festival of Indra but also questioned the efficacy of performing Vedic rites to attain moksha (liberation). He states that the practice of Vedic rites does not lead to liberation (Bhagavad Gita, chapter 2, verses 42,43). He also says that performance of Vedic rituals give finite results whereas by meditating upon him (Krishna), one gets final liberation(Bhagavad Gita, chapter 9, verses 20,21,22). Unlike Vedic rites which are performed with an intention to get a desired result, Krishna says that action should be performed without any attachments (Bhagavad Gita, chapter 3, verse 28).

Indra- Symbol of Vedic religion

About 250 out of the 1028 Rigvedic hymns are exclusively devoted to the glorification of Indra. Apart from these hymns, there are several others, wherein he is praised in association with other gods or is referred to in some other connection in the Rigveda. As the most popular god of the Vedic pantheon Indra has always been regarded as the very symbol of the official Vedic religion- the Indra mythology being very nearly identified with the Vedic religion as a whole.¹¹ Hence Indra’s ignominious fall shows the wane of the Vedic religion.

Vedic Brahmins animosity against Sri Krishna’s religion

The Vedic Brahmins had contempt towards the Bhagavatas (who were also referred as Satvatas¹² and Pancaratris) as they worshiped images and lived upon the offerings for initiation and those made to temple gods. They did not perform the Vedic duties and had no relationship with the Brahmins and so they (Bhagavatas) were not regarded as Brahmins by the Vedic Brahmins. It was considered that even by the sight of a man who takes to worship as a means to livelihood is polluted and should be purified by proper purificatory ceremonies. The Vedic Brahmins also regarded the Pancharatra texts adopted by the Bhagavatas as invalid and non-Vedic.¹³

The Vedic definition of dharma was quite different from that of the Bhagavatas. Dharma according to Bhagavata Purana (the devotional literature of the Bhagavatas) consists in the worship of God without any ulterior motive- a worship performed with a perfect sincerity of heart by men who are kindly disposed towards all and who have freed themselves from all feeling of jealousy.¹⁴ This interpretation of dharma by the Bhagavatas was superior to the Vedic definition of dharma which could produce only sense gratification of various kinds.¹⁵

Hence Medhatithi, the commentator on Manu Smriti discards not only Buddhism and Jainism as being outside the true Vedic dharma but also the followers of Pancaratra (Bhagavatas) and the Pasupatas as well. He held that their (Bhagavatas) teachings are directly contrary to the mandates of the Vedas and as an illustration he points out that the Bhagavatas considered all kinds of injury to living beings to be sinful, which directly contradicts the Vedic sanctions to sacrifice animals at particular sacrifices. According to him injury to living beings is not itself sinful but only such injury is sinful as is prohibited by the Vedic injunctions. So the customs and practices of all systems of religion which are not based on the teaching of the Vedas are to be discarded as not conforming to dharma.¹⁶ Another reason for the Vedic Brahmins to denounce the Bhagavatas was due to the latter initiating and admitting within their sect even women and sudras.¹⁷

As the popularity of Krishna rose, his opponents tried to defame him by creating stories like Krishna marrying 16,000 maidens and by even interpolating the Bhagavad Gita wherein Krishna is made to declare that he created the four castes.

Bhagavad Gita – Bed-rock of Hindu philosophy

Today Sri Krishna is the most highly esteemed religious prophet among the Hindus and his teachings are contained in the Bhagavad Gita.

The Bhagavad Gita, the Upanishads and the Brahma-Sutras technically known as the three prasthanas- form the bedrock of Vedanta philosophy. According to Hindu tradition, a philosopher or sage seeking to preach a new doctrine must gain his support from the above three texts which alone are the valid authorities on super-sensuous truths.¹⁸

^Reference

1. O.C.Gangoly – Indra cult versus Krsna cult, Journal of the Ganganath Jha Research Institute, vol vii, November, 1949, part -I, p.1

2. R.N.Dandekar – Vedic Mythological Tracts, Ajanta Publications, Delhi, 1979, p.162

3. M.Hiriyanna – The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, London, 1949, p.11

4. M.Hiriyanna – The Essentials of Indian Philosophy , pp:10,11 and Outlines of Indian Philosophy, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, London, 1949, p.35

5. N.Luniya- Life and Culture in Ancient India, Lakshmi Narain Agarwal, Agra, p.213

6. O.C.Gangoly – Op.Cit, pp:45

7. Ibid, pp: 7-10

8. Ibid, pp: 12-15

9. Ibid, pp: 20,21

10. Dhirendra Nath Pal- Sri Krishna- His Life and Teachings, Published by C.C.Basak, The Research Home, Calcutta, 1923, pp:60,61

11. R.N.Dandekar – Op.Cit, p.141

12. “The Satvatas are counted by Manu as a low caste people born from outcast Vaishyas and not entitled to the holy thread. The Satvatas were of course regarded as the same as Bhagavatas, and their chief duties consisted of worshipping in Vishnu temples by the order of the king. They also repaired or constructed temples and images for their living and were therefore regarded as outcast.” Surendranath Dasgupta-History of Indian Philosophy, vol- II, Cambridge University Press, 1952, p.546

13. Surendranath Dasgupta – A History of Indian Philosophy, vol-iii, Cambridge University Press, 1952, p.15

14. Surendranath Dasgupta – A History of Indian Philosophy, vol-iv, Cambridge University Press, 1961, p.10

15. Ibid, p.11

16. Ibid, p.7

17. Surendranath Dasgupta – A History of Indian Philosophy, vol-iii, pp: 19,20

18. Swami Nikhilananda – The Bhagavad Gita, Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Centre, November 1944, p.2

Rishis of Ancient India

 Sayana connects the word rishi with drsh (to see) and says that the Veda, which was beyond the scope of sense-perception, was revealed first to the sages through the favour of God. As the sages were the first ‘to see’ the Veda, they are called rishis.¹ The Rigvedic hymns were composed mainly by rishis like Grtsamada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bhradvaja, Vasistha and Kanva and their family members.² The only factor that distinguished the rishis from the general citizens were their special poetic gift, their ability to see things beyond what the general people were able to see. As such, the word rishis in Vedic tradition came to mean ‘one who can see’.³ Therefore, a rishi was an inspired poet or sage to whom the hymns of the Vedas were revealed.⁴

Followers of Nivrttidharma and Pravrttidharma

The Mahabharata presents two sets of seven rishis said to have expounded two kinds of values. One set of seven rishis, viz., Sana, Sanatasujata, Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatakumara, Kapila and Sanatana are said to be the spiritual sons of Brahma, who follow the religion of renunciation (nivrtti dharma). They are the foremost of all persons conversant with Yoga and have profound knowledge of Samkhya philosophy. They are the teachers of the scriptures on duty and it is they who introduced the dharma of liberation.⁵

The other seven rishis namely, Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu and Vasistha, known conjointly as Citrashikhandins are said to be the preceptors of the Veda and the followers of the world-affirming dharma (pravrtti dharma).⁶ The sages who followed the pravrttidharma were called agnihotrins and were householders. They re-establish the shrinking dharma in every age by the powers of their penance, learning and established usages. They are said to perish at the time of dissolution because of their worldly activities.⁷

Categories of Rishis

There were three categories of sages, namely Brahmarishis, Devarishis and Rajarishis. Also, five classes of sages were enumerated, like the mind-born sons of Brahma, Maharishis, Rishis, Rishikas and Mantravadins. It is not clear whether the group of seven sages formed a separate class. Most probably they were the same as the mind-born sons of Brahma also referred to as Prajapatis. They are also mentioned as Maharishis and probably were the same as Brahmarishis who were the first in the three categories of sages mentioned above.⁸

Brahmarishis

The Brahmarishis were concerned mostly with divine knowledge, deep learning and ethical conduct. They enrich the store of knowledge in order to enhance the spiritual well- being of the people. They were highly proficient in the doctrine of Brahman.⁹ It is stated that only in the five gotras, namely, Kashyapa, Vasishtha, Bhrgu, Angiras and Atri are the Brahmarishis born. It is for their knowledge of the Vedas, their birth and tapas that they are well-known. They are superior to Devarishis and Rajarishis.¹⁰

Devarishis

The Devarishis were those who had reached the god’s status by their knowledge and establishing communion with the Divine Being.¹¹ They were inferior to Brahmarishis but were superior to Rajarishis. The descendants of Dharma, Pulastya, Kratu, Pulaha, Prabhasa and Kashyapa were known as Devarishis. Their ultimate goal was the Devaloka. Nara, Narayana, Parvata and Narada, etc., are mentioned as Devarishis.¹²

Rajarishis

The kings who composed hymns were regarded as Rajarishis or Rajanyaarishis.¹³ They are mostly born in the vamsas or families of Manava and Aida. Their ultimate goal is Indraloka. Among the Rajarishis were kings like Janamejaya, Anga, Somadhi, Jahnu, Divodasa, Yayati, Kartavirya Arjuna, Janaka, etc.¹⁴

Saptarishis

In the Shatapata Brahmana there is reference to Saptarishis or seven rishis also called Prajapatis (mind-born sons of Brahma) and they were Gotama, Bharadwaja, Vishwamitra, Jamadagni, Vasishtha, Kashyapa and Atri. The names of the Saptarishis given in the Mahabharata are Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya and Vasishta.¹⁵

Gotrarishis

All Brahmins are supposed to be descended from Brahma and legend says that when Brahma made a sacrifice, seven Brahma rishis emerged from it and they were Bhrigu, Angiras, Marici, Atri, Pulaha, Pulastya and Vasishtha. Pulaha gave birth to Rakshasas and Pulastya to Pishachas while Vasishtha died and appears as a descendant of Marici. Thus, all existing Brahmanas are the descendants of the first four rishis. From the first four rishis appear eight rishis known as gotrakaras or family finders and they are Jamadagni (a descendant of Bhrigu), Bharadvaja and Gotama (descendants of Angiras), Kashyapa, Vasishtha and Agastya (descendants of Marici), Atri and Vishwamitra (descendants of Atri).¹⁶

Subsequent to the formation of the above eight families ten more families came into existence. They consist of those Brahmanas who once followed the profession of Kshtriyas (warriors) became again Brahmanas and followed either Bhrigu or Angiras. They were Vitahavya, Mitrayu, Shunaka, Vena, Rathitara, Mudgala, Vishnurviddha, Harita, Kanva and Sankriti.¹⁷

The formation of the Gotra lineage of the Brahmanas after the Vedic rishis establishes the fact that the later Brahmanas became the representatives of the rishis of by-gone days. The inheritance of the rishi tradition seems to be also one of the factors which made the Brahmanas the intellectual leaders of the society.¹⁸

Paramarishis

The Paramarishis were experts in sacrifice and promulgators of the Padmavidhi in sacrifice. Sanatkumara is the chief of the Paramarishis and they are said to reside in Prayaga.¹⁹

Shrutarishis

The Shrutarishis hear the highest and hence the title. They are so called because they know the path of knowledge by penance etc., as described in the Upanishads.²⁰

Viprarishis

The Viprarishis were those Brahmanas who were engaged in discharging proper duties as enjoined upon by the law-givers. In earlier times they used to recite Kathas and Gathas and came to belong to the Samavedic branch.²¹

Representatives of the Vedic thought

The rishis who represented the Vedic current of thought, sponsored the Indra-cult, recited prayers, performed homas and lived a full social life of a householder. The rishi-hood was not a monopoly of any particular class or sect. Many of the Rig Vedic rishis were poets, priests and warriors combined. Nor rishi-hood restricted to the male sex and several rishikas like Vishvavara, Ghosha, etc., distinguished themselves by their writings. The rishis played a very significant role in the religious, social, political and literary history of ancient India.²²

The characteristics of rishis who represented the glorious past and were closely connected with the ritualistic culture, changed considerably on account of the impact of the Muni-Shramana tradition and more positively by the presence of the Upanishadic trend.²³

Reference

1. V.G.Rahurkar – The Seers of the RGVeda, University of Poona, 1964, p. xiii

2. C.Kunhan Raja – Vedas: A Cultural Study, Andhra University, Waltair, 1957, pp: 44-47

3. Ibid, p. 41

4. John Dowson – A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature, London, 1897, p. 268

5. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Brahmanas in Ancient India, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Ltd, 1979, pp: 66,67

6. Ibid

7. S.G.Kantawala – A Note on Rsis, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Vol-vii, 1957-58, Baroda, p. 62

8. D.R.Patil – Cultural History from the Vayu Purana, Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute, Poona, 1946, pp:21,22

9. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Op.Cit, p. 132

10. D.R.Patil – Op.Cit, p.22

11. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Op.Cit, p. 132

12. D.R.Patil – Op.Cit, p.22

13. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Op.Cit, p.5

14. D.R.Patil – Op.Cit, p.22

15. John Dowson – Op.Cit, p. 268

16. P. Chentsal Rao – The Principles of Pravara and Gotra, Mysore, 1900, p.ii

17. Ibid, p. iii

18. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Op.Cit, p. 5

19. S.G.Kantawala – Op.Cit, p.65

20. Ibid, p.66

21. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Op.Cit, p. 132

22. V.G.Rahurkar – Op.Cit, pp: xv,xvi

23. Govind Prasad Upadhyay – Op.Cit, pp: 131, 132

Narasimha, the Man-Lion incarnation of Vishnu

Among the ten Avataras (incarnations) of God Vishnu still worshiped in Indian temples, that of Rama and Krishna are very popular and is followed by Narasimha. While the avataras of Rama and Krishna were in human form, that of Narasimha was in therianthropic form (half-lion and half-man). Unlike Rama and Krishna, the images of Narasimha are also found in Shaiva temples. Compared to Rama and Krishna who were historical figures, Narasimha though considered by some scholars as a historical person, has lots of mythological elements woven around his personality. As an avatara of Vishnu the development of the legend of Narasimha has passed through various stages and was also influenced by folk and tantric elements. Once upon a time Narasimha was worshiped all over India, but now his worship is confined to south India and the state of Odisha.

Historicity of Narasimha

Hiranyakashipu was the son of Kashyapa by his wife Diti, while Narasimha was the son of Vivasvan who was also the son of Kashyapa by his other wife Aditi. The quarrel between them was for the share in yajna, i.e., a share in the revenue of the kingdom. The fight between them was the first Devasurasangrama in which Hiranyakashipu was killed by Narasimha. It is very likely that Narasimha was a human being like Rama and Krishna who was later deified. In the view of D.R.Mankad, the Daityas (children of Diti) to which Hiranyakashipu belonged were straight forward, simple and trustworthy in character whereas the Devas (children of Aditi) to which Narasimha belonged were dishonourable and deceitful in nature. The Daityas were rash but not dishonest. But the Devas like Narasimha, Varaha and Vamana concealed their identity and took other forms to deceive the Daityas.¹

According to Mohan Singh, a king named Kashipu was called Hiranyakashipu for he had amassed much wealth and conquered very large territories. Hiranyakashipu probably was not a follower of Vedic cult and had antagonized the followers of that cult. When in a fight between a lion, Hiranyakashipu was killed, it was interpreted by the followers of the Vedic cult as being accomplished by the god, Hari which also means lion in Sanskrit.²

Genesis of Narasimha’s legend

A Vedic legend has reference to Indra having cut off the head of Namuci (a demon) with the foam of water. It is said that Indra had agreed with Namuci that he would not slay him by day or by night, with the dry or moist or with the palm or with the fist or with staff or bow.³ Somewhat similar to the above episode, Hiranyakashipu had obtained a boon from Brahma that he was not to be killed by a human or beast, nor die either in the day or night and no weapon of any kind should injure him. Hence we find Vishnu assuming the form of Narasimha (half-lion, half-man) who tore Hiranyakashipu with his claws at the time of lingering twilight forming the junction between day and night.⁴ Hence P.V.Kane is of the view that the story of killing Hiranyakashipu by Narasimha in the man-lion form was inspired by the story of the slaughter of the demon, Namuci by Indra at dawn with the foam of water.

Attributes of Indra transferred to Vishnu

According to M.V.Vaidya, the Puranas represent a state of thought-transition when the Vedic deities are receding into background and the great triad of high-gods is emerging to dominate the whole field of religious expression. In this transition, it is natural that those attributes which once qualified the erstwhile important god are pressed in the service of another who replaces him in authority. Thus in the new order Indra yields his place to Vishnu. The legend of Hiranyakashipu belongs to this category as it presents, in essentials, the myth of killing of Namuci by Indra transferred to the credit of Vishnu but with a change in environment and a shift in emphasis. The legend being popular, passed in the hands of the poets of Puranas, who worked on it and eventually it deteriorate into a sectarian story in glorification of the avataras of Vishnu.⁵

Development of Narasimha’s legend in the Puranas

The Vedic literature contains no reference to a deity having the form of lion or half-man and half-lion. Reference to Narasimha in the Taittriya Aranyaka is a later composition written sometimes in the early centuries of the Christian era.⁶

It is interesting to know how the legend of Narasimha developed in the Puranas in various stages. Puranas like Agni Purana, Vayu Purana, Brahma Purana, Skanda Purana and Vishnudharmottara Purana which contain the legend of Narasimha have no reference to Prahlada at all.⁷ In the second stage of the development of Narasimha legend, we have Puranas like Padma Purana (5^th kanda), Matsya Purana Saura Purana and Kurma Purana which have depicted Prahlada as a grown up person who even fought against Vishnu, but later realizes his divinity and asks his father Hiranyakashipu to surrender to him (Narasimha).⁸ Finally in the third stage, we have Puranas like Vishnu Purana, Narasimha Purana, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana (6^th kanda) where Prahlada is depicted as a child and a devotee of Vishnu from the beginning and for that reason his father, Hiranyakashipu tortures him and to save Prahlada, Vishnu emerges from a pillar in the form of Narasimha and slays Hiranyakashipu.⁹ Hence while we find the reason for killing Hiranyakashipu as given in the Mahabharatha (Shanti parva) was because he was destroying the sacrifices meant for the deities,¹⁰ while in Puranas like Vishnu Purana, Narasimha Purana, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana (6^th kanda) the reason for his killing by Narasimha was because he was torturing Prahlada a devotee of Vishnu.

Narasimha’s association with Shaivism

In the Shatarudra Samhita of the Shiva Purana an attempt to establish the supremacy of Shaivism over Vaishnavism can be observed. According to this Purana even after the killing of Hiranyakashipu, the anger of Narasimha did not subside and hence the gods requested Lord Shiva to pacify the fury of Narasimha. Shiva orders Virabhadra to go and pacify Narasimha with soothing words. When his attempt fails, on Shiva’s advice, Virabhadra assumed the form of Sharabha, caught hold of Narasimha and cut off his head and peeled his skin and offered it to Shiva who wore it. Shiva then tells the gods that as Narasimha has merged within himself like water in water and milk in milk, devotees who worship Narasimha by praising him will please Shiva and devotees who praise Shiva will please Narasimha. The Linga Purana also contains the above story of Sharabha killing Narasimha. However in the end both the Puranas tried to maintain a balance between Shaivism and Vaishnavism by the ordain given by Shiva that Vishnu is to be worshipped in the form of Narasimha by devotees who wish to obtain prosperity.¹¹

Narasimha- Originally a Lion deity

Narasimha originally was a lion deity. This is also indicated by such a Puranic statement which tells us that in the battle against Hiranyakashipu, lions born out of the body of Narasimha devoured the Danava. For instance in the Matsya Purana, it is not the lion-man but lion itself that arrives at Hiranyakashipu’s court hall and kills him. This view is further confirmed by the evidence of a sculptured panel discovered at a site called Kondamotu on the outskirts of Piduguralla village in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. The panel shows in base relief six standing figures who are identified as Pradyumna, Visnu, Narasimha, Krishna, Samkarsanda and Aniruddha. Narasimha is depicted as a couchant lion with the only difference that two hands are added to the figure at the neck level and with these he holds gada and chakra, the Vaishnava attributes. This panel is dated late 3^rd or 4^th century A.D. and the earliest iconographic representation of Narasimha.¹² One of the most important temples of Narasimha in Odisha, Narasimhanatha in Padampur (Sambalpur) is a theriomorphic deity. The image worshipped there is supposed to represent Narasimha in the shape of a cat. Also in places like Mangalagiri and Akkirapalli in Andhra Pradesh, the head of a lion and tiger are worshipped as Narasimha.¹³ It was only in the later Gupta sculptures of the north and at Badami and Ellora that the deity is shown with the lion’s head and a human body.¹⁴

Influence of Tantric ideas

Tantrism professes the worship of the female principle (shakti) and the erotic practices connected with it and also the worship of the furious and the formidable aspect of the divine. For instance the worship of deities like Kali and Bhairava, etc., are undertaken mainly with a view to counteract the unpleasant events like disease and misfortune, to keep off dangers, to ward off evil, to destroy the enemies and also to achieve material benefits which these deities are believed to bestow upon the worshipper immediately. The strong influence of the Tantric ideas led Vishnuism to develop the concept of Narasimha- originally only an incarnation of Vishnu to an independent and important deity with furious character who destroys the evils and the dangers befalling his worshippers and grants him immediately worldly benefits. Narasimha in other words, is a Vishnite version of the tantric practice of the worship of the furious deities.¹⁵

Popular cult absorbed into Vaishnavism

Narasimha was originally a dreadful god like the Vinayakas; to be propitiated for his wrath. The Vishnudharmottara Purana describes his worship for effects of evil stars, planets and other supernatural agencies and for avoiding the dangers of thieves, enemies and wild animals in the dark. The Narasimha stotra and Narasimha mantra are deemed to be efficacious for curing diseases and preventing calamities.¹⁶

The Vishnudharmottara Purana places the Man-Lion incarnation of the god in the Madra country. The Madrakas were a people living in central Punjab with their capital at Sialkot. To this day, the worship of Narasimha is very popular in Punjab especially in the Kangra district and men and women worship this god in the form of a sacred coconut on every sunday. The worshippers of Narasimha also wear on the arm, an amulet containing the picture of the god in the form of a man and it is considered highly sacred. It is very probable that the god Narasimha was the centre of a popular cult flourishing in some part of Punjab and in the early centuries of the Christian era, his worship was absorbed into Vaishnavism by recognizing him as an incarnation of Vishnu.¹⁷

Influence of Folk religion

In eastern Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, Brahmanism assimilated, transformed and even supplanted many tribal cults and the story of Narasimha’s emergence from a pillar reflects the influence of an aboriginal worship of some pillar deity (Goddess Stambheshvari) on Vaishnavism through the cult of Narasimha.¹⁸

Most of the temples dedicated to Narasimha in the Deccan are situated on the hill tops and the aboriginal tribes of these areas are known to worship mountain deities. For instance the hill tribes of the Chenchus worship the god Narasimhasvami enshrined at Ahobalam in Kurnool and call him Obalesudu.¹⁹

Reference to Narasimha in inscriptions

Prakrit inscriptions of the 1^st and 2^nd century A.D. from Sanchi, Mathura and other places have name like Simhadatta (dedicated to the man-lion form of Vishnu) and Simharakshita (protected by Narasimha incarnation) which shows that Narasimha incarnation of Vishnu became popular in the early centuries of the Christian era. The Alina copper plate record of the Maitraka dynasty of Vallabhi in Gujarat state issued in the year 766 A.D. has reference to the Narasimha avatara.²⁰ Some of the texts belonging to Narasimha cult are the Narasimha Purva Tapaniya Upanishad and Narasimha Uttara Tapaniya Upanishad and the Narasimha Samhita and the Narasimha Upapurana composed between 500-900 A.D.²¹

Narasimha in Art

According to the Vihagendra Samhita, there are 74 forms of Narasimha icon of which nine are fairly popular. They are Yoga-Narasimha (in meditative pose), Bhoga-Narasimha (seated along with Lakshmi and also known as Lakshmi-Narasimha), Ugra-Narasimha (tearing open the breast of Hiranyakashipu), Jwala-Narasimha (ferocious and flaming), Varada-Narasimha (granting a boon to and blessing Prahlada), Sthanu-Narasimha (coming out the pillar), Sthanaka-Narasimha (standing), Nitya-Narasimha (dancing) and Kevala-Narasimha (seated alone in a special yogic posture with one leg raised above the other).²²

The earliest representation of god Narasimha is on a clay seal discovered at Basarh in Bihar and assigned to the early Gupta or just the pre-Gupta period. The seal shows Narasimha in the Lalitasana pose seated on a high pedestal, his right arm raised and the left arm resting on his hips.²³

Early images of Narasimha together with the boar and dwarf forms of Vishnu are found in the rock-cut temples at Udayagiri, Badami and Mamallapuram belonging respectively to the Gupta, early Chalukya and Pallava periods.²⁴

In the southern corner of the Dashaavatara temple at Deogadh in Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh, a figure of Narasimha is seen in a caitya window seated on a lotus holding the discus, the club and the conch. At Sindursi in the Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh, rock-cut sculpture depict the god Vishnu in various forms, standing, sleeping on his serpent bed and in his Narasimha form. An image of Narasimha found at Besnagar and ascribed to 6^th century A.D. is now kept in the Gwalior Museum.²⁵

Popularity of Narasimha worship

Names like Simhavarman, Narasimhavarman and Simhavishnu were popular in the family belonging to the Pallava dynasty of south India. The earliest such name in the family of the Pallava kings is that of Simhavarman of the Manchikallu inscription assigned to the 4^th century A.D. The Narasimha form of Vishnu thus seems to have been a favourite deity with the Pallava dynasty. Sewell’s Historical Inscriptions of South India enumerates no less than 40 kings of the early and medieval periods who bore the name Narasimha. Most of the rulers flourished in south India. Among the Gupta rulers we have Narasimha Gupta Baladitya who bore the name Narasimha. In Bengal king Lakshmanasena of the Sena dynasty was devoted to Narasimha as evidenced from a record which describes him as Parama Narasimha.²⁶

Narasimha cult is non-sectarian

The Narasimha cult is not sectarian. According to the traditional biographies of Adi Shankaracharya, a mere hunter in a forest was able to have a darshan of Narasimha after a search lasting for a few hours, which he undertook at the instance of Padmapada, one of the disciples of Adi Shankaracharya. Padmapada was a devotee of Narasimha and invoked his assistance for saving Shankaracharya from a Kapalika, who was about to kill Shankaracharya. As Narasimha is regarded as having the amsa or power of Rudra, Narasimha’s icons are therefore found in Shiva temples. Sankaracharya on one occasion recited the Lakshminarasimha Stotra for saving his body from the scorching fire.²⁷

Narasimha temple of yore

Most of the ancient and popular temples belonging to Narasimha are found in south India. The famous of these are Ahobalam and Simhachalam in Andhra Pradesh. Ahobalam located in Kurnool district of A.P. is one of the 108 divyadesam ( (holy places) for the Sri Vaishnavas. As this place contains all the nine forms of Narasimha within a radius of ten miles, this place is called Navanarasimhakshetra.²⁸ In Simhachalam located in Vishakapattanam district, the presiding deity is called Varahanarasimhaswamy. The deity has two hands with the head of a lion and a human torso. The image is covered with sandal paste and made to appear like a Linga. Only once in a year on the day of Akshayatritiya, the original image of Varahanarasimha is shown to the public by removing the sandal paste.

In Tamilnadu the Narasimha temple at Sholinghur or Ghadikachalam is praised by the Tamil saint Tirumangai Alvar in his Periya Tirumozhi as one of the 108 divyadesams of Sri Vaishnavas. Other saints like Peyalvar and Nammalvar also have praised this lord of Sholinghur.³⁰ About 50 kms from the city of Salem is located Nammakal which is famous for the rock-cut sculptures of Narasimha.³¹ In Karnataka a gigantic monolith of Ugranarasimha carved out of a single boulder, 6.7 meters in height is found at Hampi. This work was executed in 1526 during the rule of Krishnadevaraya.³² Another Narasimha temple of antiquity in India is located at Joshi Mutt in Uttaranchal which is about 1200 years old. The image of the deity here is said to be installed by Sri Shankaracharya himself.³³

Narasimha is the guardian deity of the Jagannatha temple at Puri and all the performances beginning from cooking to puja are preceded by offerings to Narasimha first.³⁴ The Narasimha temple located in the Jagannatha temple complex is dated about 10^th century A.D. and probably was constructed prior to Jagannatha temple. Due to the association of Narasimha with the Jagannatha cult, Narasimha enjoys much reverence in Odisha. There are more than 100 Narasimha temples with rich endowments in this state.³⁵ In modern times pratishtha of new images of Narasimha is rare due to a belief that Narasimha being an ugra-murti, if not properly worshipped in due form, will burn down villages or otherwise cause harm to the people.³⁶

Reference

1. D.R.Mankad – The Twelve Devasurasangramas, Journal of the Oriental Institute, M.S.University of Baroda, Baroda, vol xii, No.3, March, 1963, pp: 220-229

2. Mohan Singh – The Legend of Prahlada, QJMS, vol-31 (2), 1940, p.104

3. P.V.Kane – History of Dharmasastra, vol II, part 2, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poone, 1941, pp: 718,719

4. T.A.Gopinath Rao – Elements of Hindu Iconography, vol- 1, part 1, Madras, 1914, p.149

5. M.V.Vaidya – The Palace of Hiranyakashipu, ABORI, vol-xxii, 1942, pp: 609, 610

6. Suvira Jaiswal - Evolution of the Narasimha Legend and its possible sources, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol-34, 1973, p.140

7. K.Venkata Krishna – A Study of Narasimha Cult in Sanskrit Literature, PhD thesis, Department of Sanskrit, Sri Venkateshwara University, Tirupati, 2010, pp: 3,6

8. Ibid, pp: 7,9,10

9. Ibid, pp: 17-29

10. Ibid, p.2

11. Ibid, pp, 13-16

12. Suvira Jaiswal, Op.Cit, p.143

13. Anncharlott Eschmann, Hermann Kulke, Gaya Charan Tripathi, Edited – The Cult of Jagannath and the Regional Tradition of Orissa, Manohar Publication, New Delhi, 1986, pp: 107,108

14. Suvira Jaiswal, Op.Cit, p.144

15. Anncharlott Eschmann, Hermann Kulke, Gaya Charan Tripathi, Edited – Op.Cit, pp: 43,44

16. Suvira Jaiswal- The Origin and Development of Vaisnavism (from 200 B.C. to A.D.500), Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1967, pp: 122,123

17. Ibid

18. Suvira Jaiswal - Evolution of the Narasimha Legend and its possible sources, Op.Cit, p. 145

19. Ibid, p. 148

20. D.C.Sircar- Studies in the Religious life of Ancient and Medieval India, Motilal Banarsidas, p. 266

21. Indira S Aiyar – Lord Narasimha: Iconography and Literature, Tattvaloka, vol- xv, No.2, June/July, 1992, p.26

22. R.K.Sheshadri – The Concept and Image of Narasimha, Tattvaloka, Op.Cit, p.29

23. Indira S Aiyar, Op.Cit, p.24

24. D.C.Sircar – Op.Cit, p.268

25. Suvira Jaiswal- The Origin and Development of Vaisnavism, Op.Cit, pp:185,202

26. D.C.Sircar – Op.Cit, p.267

27. R.K. Sheshadri, Op.Cit, p.28

28. K.Venkata Krishna, Op.Cit, p.75

29. Ibid, pp: 80,81

30. Ibid, p. 107

31. Ibid, p. 109

32. Ibid, p. 124

33. Ibid, p. 145

34. Anncharlott Eschmann, Hermann Kulke, Gaya Charan Tripathi, Edited – Op.Cit, p. 112

35. K.Venkata Krishna, Op.Cit, pp: 139,140

36. T.A.Gopinath Rao, Op.Cit, p.40