Yoga- A Brief Summary

The term Yoga can be applied to any systematic effort made by man to alleviate his spiritual thirst by the use of suitable psychosomatic exercises out of the vast inventory of methods mentioned in Yoga texts and other religious documents According to Georg Feuerstein, Yoga is the generic name for the various Indian paths of ecstatic self-transcendence, or the methodical modification of consciousness to the point of liberation from the spell of the ego-personality. It is the psychospiritual technology specific to India.

Genesis and antiquity of Yoga

The Vedic literature bears witness to the existence of two classes of non-Brahmin magician priests in the Vedic and proto historic period who are respectively called Vratyas and the Yatis. In classical Sanskrit Yati denotes an ascetic. The term is derived from the root yat, to strive, to exert oneself, and is also connected with the root yam, to restrain, to subdue, to control. Etymologically Yati can only mean a person engaged in religious exercise such as tapas, austerities and Yoga. The marble statuettes of Mohenjodaro with head, neck and body quite erect and half-shut eyes fixed on the tip of the nose have the exact posture of one engaged in practicing Yoga. These statuettes were that of Yatis of the proto-historic and prehistoric Indus civilization intended either for worship or as votive offerings, opines R.P.Chanda.

But the mythology, the poetry and the elaborate sacrificial rites of the Rishis made a stronger appeal to the nobility and the masses than the Yoga exercise carried on in solitude. So as Vedic religion became more and more popular, the Yatis receded into the background and were gradually reduced to the condition of the outcast religious mendicants or Vratyas. But when the growth of belief in the doctrines of transmigration and of Atman (Self), the knowledge of Self or the Absolute came to be recognized as the way to final emancipation, the Yoga of the Yatis came to its own again as a means of gaining that knowledge and gave birth to the Brahmanic order of the Sannyasins, who are Yatis par excellence and to the non-Brahmin order of the Sramanas like the Sakyaputriyas (Buddhists), the Nigranthas (Jainas), the Ajivikas and others. According to Mundaka Upanishad, the Yatis (referred in the Rigveda as hostile to Vedic rites) are depicted as persons who had given up worldly affairs, practiced Yoga and realized Brahman.

According to R.N.Dandekar a study of the early Veda would make it abundantly clear that the concepts relating to Yoga are quite foreign to it. The most distinctive characteristic of the Vedic religious practice was homa, while the non-Vedic religious practice was characterized by Bali, Puja and Yoga. The followers of non-Vedic cults like the Vratya cult, Brahmacarin cult and the Muni cult had no faith in the efficacy of the Vedic rituals and as against it had developed the practices of Yoga which helped them attain magical and miraculous powers. The Vratyas are said to have practiced pranayama and other similar austerities and were instrumental in the transmission of Yoga-like knowledge. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika mentions that Hatha Yoga started from Adinath (Shiva) and then enumerates thirty five great Siddhas in all from Matsyendranatha, Goraksanatha onwards.

Yogis of Yore

Many works mention Hiranyagarbha as the propounder of Yoga. For instance Vacaspati in his commentary on Yoga Sutra states that Yogi Yajnavalkya mentions that Hiranyagarbha was the propounder of Yoga. Ahirbudhnya Samhita states that Hiranyagarbha propounded two Yoga Samhitas, namely Nirodha Yoga and Karma Yoga. In Mahabharata (Shantiparva) it is said that Hiranyagarbha was the ancient knower of Yoga and no one else knew it. Similarly there is reference to one Jaigisavya as a great Yogi in Mahabharata (Shalyaparva and Shantiparva), Varaha Purana and Buddhacarita. This shows that Jaigisavya was a great teacher of Yoga long before the Christian era and probably had composed a work on Yoga presently unavailable.

The doctrines of Yoga had been developed even before the Katha, Mundaka, Shvetasvatara and other Upanishads. Based on the reference to Yoga in Apastamba Dharma Sutra, P.V.Kane says that long before the 4^th or 5^th century B.C., Yoga as a discipline of the mind had been well developed.

Meaning of the term Yoga

The word Yoga is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root yuj, meaning to yoke, to join or to unite. The word Yoga occurs in the Rigveda in various senses such as yoking or harnessing, achieving the unachieved, connection, etc. There is a great distance or gap between the meaning of the word Yoga in the Rigveda and its meaning in some of the Upanishads and in classical Sanskrit. According to S.N.Dasgupta, tapas (asceticism) and brahmacharya (vows of celibacy) were regarded as greatest virtues and as these could be achieved only by controlling one’s senses, the word Yoga which was originally applied to the control of steeds began to be applied to the control of the senses.

Yoga Sutra of Patanjali

Patanjali who composed Yoga Sutra was not the founder of the Yoga but an editor who collected the different forms of Yoga practices and gleaned the diverse ideas which were or could be associated with the Yoga and grafted them all on the Sankhya metaphysics and gave them the form in which they have been handed down to us.

Yoga Sutra is divided into four chapters/parts, Samadhi Pada (concentration), Sadhana Pada (means of attainment), Vibhuti Pada (supernormal powers) and Kaivalya Pada (aloofness, liberation). According to S.N.Dasgupta, the last chapter/part is a subsequent addition by a hand other than that of Patanjali.

Yoga Sutra gives us an eight fold path of discipline to control the body, the senses and the mind. They are Yama (moral observances), Niyama (self-restraint or self purification by discipline), Asana (postures), Pranayama (breath control), Pratyahara (withdrawal and emancipation of the mind from the dominance of the senses and exterior objects), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation) and Samadhi (a state of trance or super consciousness or ecstasy).

Patanjali might have lived anytime between the 4^th century and 2^nd century B.C. Apart from Yoga Sutra, he is said to have written Mahabhasya, a commentary on Panini’s, Astadhyayi and a medical text called Patanjala tantra. While some scholars identify the author of Yoga Sutra and Mahabhashya as one and the same, others hold them to be different.

Commentaries on Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra were written by Vyasa (4^th century A.D.), king Bhoja (10^th century A.D.) and Vijnanabhiksu (15^th century A.D.) Vacaspati (9^th century A.D.), wrote a commentary on Vyasa’s commentary on Yoga Sutra.

Yoga and Sankhya

Yoga is intimately allied to Sankhya philosophy. The Bhagavad Gita calls them one. Yoga means spiritual action and Sankhya means knowledge. Sankhya is theory and Yoga is practice. For all practical purposes Sankhya and Yoga may be treated as the theoretical and practical side of the same system. Yoga accepts the three pramanas- perception, inference and testimony of Sankhya and also the 25 metaphysical principles. Both Sankhya and Yoga consider each individual Soul as eternal and its destiny is to become free from the influence of Prakrti and its evolutes and to remain forever as ‘Pure Intelligence’.

At the same time there are certain points of difference between the two. The standard Sankhya finds no place for God (Ishvara) and it is frankly atheistic while Yoga finds a place for God. Another point of difference between them is that while Sankhya postulated that an intellectual understanding of the nature of Purusha and of Prakrti and the difference between the two was sufficient for the emancipation of the individual Self from the liability of rebirth, Yoga emphasized systematic training of the will and emotions.

Interpretation of the term Yoga

The term Yoga is most frequently interpreted as the union of the individual self (jivataman) with the supreme Self (Paramatman). This notion of union is valid to the schools of Yoga which are influenced by the Vedanta philosophy. However the metaphor of union does not at all fit the system of classical Yoga as formulated by Patanjali, in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra, there is no mention of a union with the transcendental Reality as the ultimate target of the Yogic endeavour. Given Patanjali’s dualist metaphysics, which strictly separates the transcendental Self (Purusha) from Nature (Prakrti) and its products, this would not make any sense. Patanjali defines Yoga simply as ‘restraint in the fluctuations of mind stuff’. Bhojaraja, commentator of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, explains Yoga as being a state of complete separation of the Purusha (Self) and Prakrti (Primordial Nature). This view of Bhojaraja is in keeping with the fundamental metaphysical position of the Sankhya and Yoga philosophy. The Shandilya Upanishad mentions Yoga as one of the two ways of the cessation of the minds working and the Maha Upanishad calls Yoga ‘a method of making the mind silent’. On the other hand Yoga Yajnavalkhya defines Yoga as the union of jivatman and the Paramatman and the Vishnu Purana defines Yoga as the union of the purified mind with Brahman.

Yoga an adjunct to religion

Yoga is an adjunct to religion and has always been treated as such in India. Many of the disciplines and practices of Yoga are common to all great religions of mankind or at least to their esoteric aspects. The main difference is that in Yoga they have been brought into a methodological system divested of other rituals. This gives to Yoga the semblance of an independent cult. Yoga is counted among the six traditional or viewpoints (darshanas) of Hinduism.

In Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga is treated as a powerful means towards emancipation; as an integral and essential part of man’s religious zeal. In fact all sects, creeds and faiths (the followers of Vedanta, Shaktas, Shaivas, Vaishnavas, Buddhists, etc.) in India depend on Yoga for the demonstration of their truths and the verification of their varied and sometimes diametrically opposed beliefs.

Types of Yoga

Yoga although one is differentiated according to practice and usage. Some late Sanskrit works like the Yogatattvopanishad and Sivasamhita speak of four Yogas viz., Mantra Yoga, Hatha Yoga, Laya Yoga and Raja Yoga. In Bhagavad Gita the term Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Karma Yoga occurs. Other forms of Yoga are Nada Yoga, Kriya Yoga and Kundalini Yoga.

Mantra Yoga: Mantra Yoga is the rhythmic repetition of a mantra (a sacred word), in front of a deity. The greatest of the mantras is the syllable of obeisance, AUM, which represents the highest and most abstract aspect of Divinity.

Hatha Yoga: Hatha Yoga aims to transform the human body to make it a worthy vehicle for Self-realization through practice of asanas, pranayama, mudras and bandhas. The Hathayogapradipika declares Hatha Yoga to be a ladder to Raja Yoga. It also states that there can be no Raja Yoga without Hatha Yoga and vice versa. They are counterparts of each other.

Laya Yoga: The word Laya is derived from the root ‘Li ’ having two meanings, one is ‘to become dissolved’ or ‘vanish’ and another is ‘to cling’ and ‘to remain sticking’. The Laya yogins seek to meditatively dissolve themselves by clinging solely to transcendental Self. They endeavour to transcend all memory trances and sensory experiences by dissolving the microcosm, the mind, into the transcendental Being- Consciousness Bliss.

Raja Yoga: Raja Yoga is a practical and scientifically worked out method of concentration and meditation. This method is needed more or less in every Yoga or the way to spiritualization and therefore it is regarded as the royal path, the king of Yogas. Vijnanabhikshu treats Raja Yoga and Patanjali’s Yoga as synonyms. Raja Yoga became very popular during the composition of various Yoga Upanishads.

Jnana Yoga: This Yoga is based entirely upon the monistic principles of the Advaita or non-dualistic system of the Vedanta. Its purpose is to show that subject and object are but the two expressions of one absolute Being, that God and man, the Creator and the created, are only different aspects of one universal Reality. Jnana Yoga teaches that right discrimination and proper analysis are indispensable to the acquisition of knowledge of the true Self and the Reality which underlies phenomenal object. It also declares that the knowledge of the Self will bring to the soul the realization of absolute Truth more quickly than the practice of the Raja Yoga, Karma Yoga or Bhakti Yoga.

Bhakti Yoga: This Yoga is especially suited for those who are emotional in their nature and have the feeling of love and devotion highly developed. A practitioner of Bhakti Yoga resigns himself entirely to God and surrenders his will to the will of the almighty One. Every action of his body and mind is performed simply to please God.

Karma Yoga: The central idea of Karma Yoga seems to be that we cannot remain without acting even for a short time. We have to respond to the environment. It is for the wise man, however, to respond without any choice or desire for a particular effect. A practitioner of Karma Yoga abandons attachment to the fruits of his labours and learns to work for work’s sake, keeping in mind the idea that by his work he is paying off the debt which he owes to parents, society, country and all mankind.

Nada Yoga: Nada means sound. In this type of Yoga, the mind is fixed on Nada or Anahata sounds. Anahata literally means unbeaten or unstruck and it is a type of sound not coming from striking or beating certain things or objects but from the Anahata Chakra. By meditating on this sound the Yogi enters into samadhi and attains knowledge of the Self.

Kriya Yoga: This Yoga constitutes the performance of austerities (tapas), study of scriptures (svadhyaya) and self-surrender (Isvara Pranidhana).

Kundalini Yoga: In this Yoga the Kundalini is awakened and made to rise through the six centres along the central artery of the subtle body from the Muladhara to the Lotus-of-a-thousand-petals at the top of the head where it merges into the Supreme Person. Kundalini is the consciousness (cit-shakti) which as a result of the evolutionary process of creation becomes limited as jiva (a living being). When Kundalini is aroused she proceeds to revert to her real existence as undifferentiated from the ultimate Reality. She is called Kundalini, as she is visualized as a coiled snake lying inside the lowest Chakra called Muladhara (at the base of the spine). Since cit-shakti is identified with the Goddess, the cosmic woman, Kundalini is referred to as feminine.

Patanjali Yoga vis-à-vis Hatha Yoga

According to P.V.Kane there are really only two main systems of Yoga, namely the one expounded in the Yoga Sutra and the other dealt with in such works as the Goraksashataka and the Hathayogapradipika of Svatmarama Yogin. Briefly the difference between the two is that the Yoga of Patanjali concentrates all efforts on the discipline of the mind, while Hatha Yoga mainly concerns itself with the body, its health, its purity and freedom from diseases. Hatha Yoga deals with processes as Dhauti (washing the stomach), Basti (Yogic enema) and Nauli (shaking the abdomen) about which Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra is silent. According to Goraksashataka and Hathayogapradipika, the main aim of asana and pranayama is to rouse the Kundalini (the vital force in a person slumbering at the base of the spine coiled like a snake) and take it through the several Chakras and the Sushumna-nadi to Brahmadvara while the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali hardly ever speaks upon Chakras and Nadis.

Yoga is a unique contribution of India to the world. Since 2015, International Day of Yoga has been observed around the world on 21^st June every year to spread awareness about the benefits of Yoga and meditation.

Reference:

1. Surendranath Dasgupta – A History of Indian Philosophy, vol – 1

2. R.N.Dandekar – Vedic Mythological Tracts, Ajanta Publication, 1979

3. R.P.Chanda – Survival of the Pre-historic civilization of the Indus Valley, ASI, New Delhi, 1998

4. K.C.Joshi – On the meaning of Yoga, Philosophy East & West, vol 15, No.1, January 1965

5. P.T.Raju – Structural Depths of Indian Thoughts, 1985

6. Complete Works of Swami Abhedananda, vol -3, Ramakrishna Vedanta Math, Calcutta, 1958

7. Gopi Krishna – Kundalini – The Secret of Yoga,1990

8. P.V.Kane – History of Dharmashastras, vol – 5, part-2, BORI, Poone, 1962

9. Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, Teun Goudriaan – Hindu Tantrism, 1979

10. Georg Feuerstein – The Yoga Tradition: Its history, literature, philosophy and practice, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt Ltd, Delhi, 2002

11. Georg Feuerstein – The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra, Shambhala, 2011

12. Alain Danielou – Yoga–The Method of Re-Integration, University Book Publishers, New York, 1955

13. Swami Sivananda – Tantra Yoga, Nada Yoga & Kriya Yoga, A Divine Life Society Publication, 1994

14. Chandradhar Sharma – Indian Philosophy: A Critical Survey, Barnes & Noble, INC, 1962

15. Sarika Anuru Mishra – The Concept of Raja Yoga, Bulletin of the Deccan College of Post-Graduate and Research Institute, vol – 76, 2016

Did Ayurveda originated in the Vedic tradition?

According to Charaka the science of life (medical science) has always been in existence. In ancient India we find professional physicians called Vaidyas or bhishaks originally belonging to a class of people known as Ambashtas. Then there were wandering pedlars, mostly of tribal origin who collected herbs and drugs from forests and mountains and sold them in villages. Also priests belonging to the Vaikhanasa sect functioned as physicians. With regards to professional physicians having literary traditions, the practitioners of the Rasayana school, Siddha and Ayurveda are prominent and the origins of these medical systems go back to a very remote past.

In the system of therapeutic alchemy known as Rasavaidya or the Rasayana school, the use of metals and mercury was extensive. This tradition, normally included in the Ayurveda tradition developed almost independently of the Vedic corpus, and profited by contact with such cultures as the Arabian, the Persian and the Chinese.

The Siddha system of medicine, which obviously is outside the Vedic tradition is at present is prevalent only in south India, especially Tamilnadu.

The medical system represented by physician Charaka and by the surgeon Sushruta are collectively designated as Ayurveda or the science of life.

Charaka refers to Ayurveda as a distinct Veda which is superior to the other Vedas, while Sushruta calls Ayurveda a upanga of the Atharvaveda and Vagbhatta the elder refers it as a upaveda of the Atharvaveda. As the Vedic literature is chiefly concerned with religion and rituals, how come the science of medicine came to be connected with it and the reason behind it is examined in this article.

There is no Veda called Ayurveda

The term Ayurveda does not occur at all in any of the works of Vedic literature. Perhaps the Ashtadhyayi of Panini is the oldest work, where this word has been cited twice. The Mahabharata puts forth the term Ayurveda along with its eight-fold divisions. Hence it would be wrong to regard Ayurveda as a development of Rigveda or of Yajurveda. In fact the practitioners of medicine were considered unclean and impure by the followers of Vedic tradition and according to the Dharma Shastras, the profession of physicians was meant for the lower class. For instance the Apastamba Dharma Sutra declares that the food given by a physician, a hunter, a surgeon, unfaithful wife or a eunuch must not be eaten. Gautama Dharma Sutra asserts that a Brahmin must not accept food from an artisan, a criminal, a carpenter, a surgeon and such other persons. Vasishta Dharma Sutra says food given by a physician, a hunter, a thief, an outcast must not be eaten. Even alms, though offered without asking, must not be accepted from a physician and a surgeon. Similarly Smrtis like Manu Smrti declares that it is prohibited for members of higher castes to accept food from the physicians as the food given by them is like pus and blood.

Contempt for Ayurveda in orthodox circles

In the Rigveda except for some late songs (hymns) in this vast collection, the question of the castes and caste-privileges does not have any place. Hence in the Rigveda the twin gods, Ashvins are highly eulogised for their medical and surgical skills. An entire hymn (x.97) in the Rigveda is in praise of the healing herb or oushadhi. Among the physician deities of the Rigveda are Soma, Rudra and Varuna.

The main features of the hierarchical society assumes very clear forms in the Yajurveda and Brahmana texts where physicians come under strong condemnation. Hence we find Ashwins are degraded because of their medical past and in spite of being a Veda, the Atharvaveda is looked upon with subdued contempt. The condemnation continues throughout the legal literature from Apastamba and Gautama belonging to a few centuries before the Christian era to the late commentators of Manu like Kulluka Bhatta of the 12^th -13^th century A.D., wherein the lawgivers insist that the medical practice must remain restricted to those that are supposed to be base-born. Takshashila, a famous centre for the cultivation of medicine was considered an impure region by orthodox Brahmins.

The reason why Ayurveda was frowned upon by the orthodox circles was due to the fact that Ayurveda was based on scientific principles where mysticism, rituals and religion had no place. This viewpoint would have affected the powers and privileges of the priestly class whose influence over the society was through their knowledge of rituals and religion. Another reason why the art of healing was looked down upon was because Ayurveda extolled the virtues of wine and in its pharmacopoeia had both alcohol and meat for making medicines. Charaka lists as many as 170 medicines of animal origin. The Ayurvedic advice like - ‘there is no sin in eating meat, in drinking liquor or in sex indulgence which are natural inclination’ was frowned upon by the orthodox.

Necessity made Ayurveda’s acceptance into the Vedic fold

But as it was necessary and practical to accept medical aid in times of need, Ayurveda had to be accommodated within the Vedic complex and it was done after inventing a mythology to its origin and affiliating it with the Atharvaveda (as Atharavaveda also dealt with curative aspects). Apart from this the Ayurvedic texts were interpolated with religious and magical elements.

Interpolation in Ayurvedic texts

Several scholars argue that Ayurveda was scientific and that the many religious and magical elements found in the texts were either stale Vedic remnants or later Brahmanic impositions that sought to repress Ayurvedic’s revolutionary empiricism. According to Zimmermann - ‘In a tradition dominated by the Pundits, Ayurveda represents the seed of secular thought. True this secularism is almost immediately repressed, normalized and impregnated with a religious vocabulary. Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya argues that in ancient India, the only discipline that promises to be fully secular and contains clear potentials of the modern understanding of natural science is medicine and the magico-religious aspects of the texts are alien elements and later grafts. G.Jan Meulenbeld suggests that Brahminic domination is the reason that Ayurveda was unable to pursue its empirical course of modifying theories in the light of observed anomalies. According to these views, the classical Ayurveda texts consist of distinct layers: authentic Ayurveda – empirical, rational and scientific and one or more inauthentic and ill fitting religious strata. According to Steven Engler, Ayurveda did not clearly distinguish between what we would now call ‘science’ and ‘religion’. Magical and religious elements are too prominent, too intermingled with empirical passages, and too explicitly acknowledged as part of Ayurveda to allow them to be simply explained away. However, there does seem to be good reason to credit the claim that some of the religious elements of the classical Ayurvedic texts were added by parties sympathetic with Brahmanic orthodoxy.

Texts intermixed with religious and magical elements

Religious ideas are found throughout the Ayurvedic texts of Charaka and Sushruta. For instance Sushruta (ci.24.43) says -‘Devotion to the gods, Brahmanas add to one’s good name, piety, wealth, progeny and duration of life’. Charaka (Ni.7.11) says - ‘desire for inflicting injury upon the gods, cows, Brahmins and ascetics is a sign of insanity caused by gods.’ Charaka Samhita (Sa.8.34; cf.In.12.80) says Brahmins versed in Atharvaveda are to be present at childbirth and Sushruta Samhita (Su.46.141) says that mantras from Atharvaveda are to be recited before all meals in order to detoxify food. Views about the cow are very ambiguous in Ayurvedic texts. On the one hand it says cattle products (beef, milk, urine and dung) are to be taken internally for medicinal purposes. For instance Charaka Samhita (Sa.8.41) mentions that after giving birth, women should consume a paste made, in part from ‘a portion of the right ear of the untamed and alive bull cut and smashed in a stone mortar.’ On the other hand the text insists that cows should not be harmed. How can we interpret a text that holds that cows are to be both eaten and not harmed asks Steven Engler and opines that the apparent contradiction can be resolved if we accept that the religious elements are earlier survivals or later imposition.

Ayurveda rooted in Tantric tradition

According to S.K.Ramachandra Rao the Indian medical systems including the Ayurveda were rooted in the Tantric culture which at that point of time was pre-Vedic and were to a great extent influenced by the Samkhya-Yoga philosophy. We have to note that both the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita are only reconstructions and redactions of earlier tantras which have been lost. The very expression Samhita in the works ascribed to Charaka and Sushruta betrays an anxiety to fall in line with the orthodox texts belonging to the Vedic literature. Of the 1500 medical tracts listed in Aufrecht’s Catalogue, a good many are styled Tantras. Even the eight branches of classical Ayurveda were called Tantras- Shalyatantra, Agadatantra, Rasayanatantra, etc. It is not accidental that all these were called Tantras. The belongingness of Ayurveda to the tantric tradition has been consistent and Rudra, a divinity belonging to the Tantric culture was the first physician.

It is also possible that the medical wisdom and skill of the professional physician in ancient India were ultimately founded on folk tradition. The essential framework was provided by folk expertise and the details were worked out in subsequent years by observation, reasoning, experience and also experimentation.

Reference

• S.K.Ramachandra Rao -Edited, Encyclopaedia of Indian Medicine, vol – I, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1985, pp: 2,3.

• Jyotir Mitra – Development of Medical Sciences in Vedic India, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol-30, 1968

• Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya – Science and Society in Ancient India, Research India Publications, Calcutta, 1977

• Steven Engler - ‘Science vs Religion’ in Classical Ayurveda, Numen, vol – 5, No. 4, 2003

Vedic Sacrifice, a brief introduction

Sacrifice forms the foremost element in the Vedic culture. Almost the whole of Vedic literature revolves around sacrifice. It is so dominant that one cannot think of the Veda without sacrifice. A sacrifice in very simple terms is the offering of an object through the medium of fire.

Kalpa Sutras, Manual for Vedic sacrifices

Ancient sages such as Ashvalayana, Shankhayana, Drahyayana, Bodhayana, Apastamba, Bharadvaja and others composed many Kalpa Sutras with a view to give a complete and comprehensive method for the performance of Vedic sacrifices as described in the different Vedic shakas (branches). The Kalpa Sutras are considered to be one of the six auxiliaries of the Vedas because without their help it is difficult to understand or perform the numerous rituals prescribed in the different Vedic shakas.

The Kalpa Sutras contain Shrauta Sutras, Grhya Sutras, Dharma Sutras and Shulva Sutras. The Shrauta Sutras describe the great sacrifices while the Grhya Sutras deal with domestic sacrifices such as marriage and Upanayana. The Dharma Sutas deal with social usage and customary law and the Shulva Sutras contain rules for the measurement and construction of fire altars and sacrificial sheds, etc.

Though Shrauta Sutras and Grhya Sutras deal with sacrifices there is a difference between them. The Shrauta Sutras describe the big sacrifices which should be generally performed with the help of three or more sacred fires, while the Grhya Sutras deal with simple domestic ceremonies of daily life which may be performed with the single Grhya fire. The Shrauta rites require the services of a number of priests – as many as sixteen, whereas Grhya rites can be performed by the householder himself. The offering of Soma which figures prominently in Shrauta sacrifices is absolutely unconnected with the Grhya rites.

The Kalpa Sutras are indebted to the Brahmanas which are the commentaries of the Vedas. The Brahmanas interpret the Vedic Samhitas (Mantras) with a ritualistic outlook. But there is a fundamental difference between the Brahmanas and the Kalpa Sutras in regard to their aim and scope. The principle aim of the Brahmanas is to explain the significance of various acts in Vedic sacrifices and to settle ritualistic doctrines, while the Kalpa Sutras are chiefly concerned with giving a succinct and systematic account of the Vedic sacrifices and customs prevalent at the time of their composition. The Kalpa Sutra simply record the ritual and traditions currently in their respective schools and do not concern themselves with their explanation and rationale.

The Kalpa Sutras are attached to different shakas of each Veda and each of them regulates the systematic performance of the rituals for the followers of that particular branch of the Veda. For instance the Ashvalayaniya and Shankhayaniya Shautra Sutra belongs to the Rigvedic shakas; the Mashaka, Latyayaniya, Drahyayaniya to shakas belonging to Samaveda; Vaitanasutra and Kaushikasutra to Atharvaveda, Katyayaniya to Shukla Yajurveda and Apastambiya, Baudhayaniya, Bharadvajiya, Vadhula, Hiranyakeshiya, Vaikhanasa to Krishna Yajurveda.

Origin of Vedic sacrifice

It was from the earliest stage of the kindling of fire that the sacrifice seems to have originated. Agni being first kindled by the priestly families of Atharvan and Angiras who are also credited with the origination of the sacrifice. Rigvedic sacrifice originated with the idea of propitiating the divinities through Agni with the help of the hymns and the offerings so that the progress of the individual as well as the group should become possible. Sacrifice during the first stage was characterized by the worship of the individual divinities with the help of the fire kindled in the household and the hymns composed to propitiate the divinity concerned. The work of composing the hymn and officiating at the sacrifice was apparently done by the same person who came to be referred to as Jaritr, Karu, Vipra in his former capacity and Hotr in the latter one. The earliest offerings were ghrita (ghee) and payas (rice cooked in milk) and later Soma. The process of offering an object into the fire is called Homa and the object of offering is called Havis.

Purpose of Vedic sacrifices

Vedic sacrifices or rites in general whether Shrauta or Grhya are performed with an aim to gain some positive results and fruits. The purpose of Vedic ritual was the gratification of the gods for obtaining the benefits of offspring, increase in cattle wealth, a long life, supremacy and also for warding off the evil effects.

Rituals overshadow worship of divinities

The hymns of the Rigveda are not known to be essentially sacrificial in their origin. In fact, it is generally believed that a large number of hymns cannot be considered to have anything to do with the sacrifice. But during the Brahmana period sacrifices became elaborate, mechanical and began to acquire a rigid character. Metaphorically speaking it can be said that in the days of Rigveda the mantras and sacrifice were the two horses drawing the chariot of the propitiation of the divinities while in the days of Brahmanas the performance of sacrificial rite became the chariot to be drawn by the hymns and the divinities.

When the Vedic ritual developed further the priests felt the need of a collection of verses and formulas to be recited at the performance of sacrifices; and this necessity led to the compilation of certain Rigvedic verses and ritualistic formulas in the form of Yajur Veda. The formulas called Yajus were obviously a priestly creation. The Rigvedic verses borrowed by Yajur Veda for sacrificial purposes were in many cases without any relevance to the ritual. Even the mantras of the Rigveda employed at the Grhya sacrifices (domestic ceremonies) have no bearing on the ceremonies.

Synonyms of Yajna

The term widely used for sacrifice is Yajna. The other terms generally used are Yaga, Kratu, Adhvara and Makha. Though these terms are usually employed as synonyms, sometimes a special meaning is attached to them. Yajna is said to be that type of sacrifice in which there is no Yupa (sacrificial post). Yaga and Kratu are applied to that type in which Yupa is prescribed. Adhvara and Makha are terms which denote mostly the bigger sacrifices.

Types of Yajnas

Vedic sacrifices were of two types, Shrauta Yajnas and Smarta Yajnas. The former is based on the Shrauta Sutras and the latter is based on the Grhya Sutras. On the basis of offerings, Shrauta sacrifices are classified into Pakayajnas wherein cooked offerings are made, Haviryajnas, wherein the offering includes animals and Somayajnas wherein the Soma juice and other offerings are made. The sacrifices are also classified on the basis of the period of performance like Ekaha or a single day sacrifice, Ahina or sacrifice performed for several days and Sattra which is a sacrificial session whose duration varies from twelve days to a year or more. Yet another division of sacrifices are Nitya, Kamya and Naimithika. Nitya sacrifices are obligatory while Naimithika sacrifices are done occasionally like birth of a son, performance of sacred thread ceremony, marriage, Shraddha, etc. Both these sacrifices have to be done by the dvijas (twice-born) because of the scriptural injunction and are performed without any consideration of reward. On the other hand Kamya sacrifices are done with an intention of securing certain rewards like Svarga Loka.

Different kinds of priests

The Vedic sacrifices required a number of priests who did different things during the sacrifice. The Hotr, apparently the oldest of the priests, used to invoke the gods by reciting the Rigvedic hymns. The Adhvaryu did the actual sacrificial performance while the Udgatar chanted the samans musically. Verses from the Rigveda and Samaveda were recited loudly while the hymns from the Yajurveda were muttered in a low voice. A priest known as Brahman used to supervise the whole ritual. Other priests who took part in the sacrificial ceremonies were Purohita, Potr, Prashastr, Upavaktr, Agnidh and others.

Important Vedic sacrifices

The important sacrifices coming under Haviryajnas are Darsapurnamasa, Pindapitrayajna, Agnyadhana, Agnihotra, Caturmasya, Sautramani and Nirudhapashubandha. Sacrifices grouped under Somayajnas are Agnistoma (Jyotistoma), Atyagnistoma, Ukthya, Sodasin, Vajapeya, Atiratra and Aptoryama. Other important Vedic sacrifices include Rajasuya, Ashvamedha, Purushamedha and Sarvamedha.

Animal sacrifice in Yajnas

Anthropologists had long agreed that behind the various sacrificial practices of the ancient world stands the primitive human sacrifice and Vedic sacrifice was not exceptional to this practice in the beginning. According to Aitareya Brahmana, the gods first slew the man (Purusha) as the victim. But when he had been slain, the sacrificial essence in him went to the horse. Then from the horse it went to the ox and from it to the sheep and then to the goat. Then it entered into the earth and through the earth it entered into the rice of which the sacrificial cake is made. Thus the sacrificial cake (Purodasha) contains the sacrificial essence. According to G.U.Thite the animal sacrifice in the first stage was a human being and then successively of other animals and finally of the sacrificial cake which represented the animal.

The story of Shunahshepa mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana shows that human sacrifice existed during the Vedic period. The Vajasaneyi Samhita of the Shukla Yajur Veda and Shatapata Brahmana refers to the Purushamedha wherein human beings were sacrificed. This rite was celebrated for the attainment of supremacy over all created beings. This rite was performed for 40 days (though five days were called the days of Purushamedha) and eleven sacrificial posts were placed and to each was tied an animal (a barren cow) fit of Agni and Soma. The human victims were placed between the posts. As the actual process of killing was rather troublesome to some of the sensitive minds among the ritualists, we are told in connection with the Purushamedha that those Purushas who are bound to the sacrificial post are to be set free after some ritual actions had been finished.

According to K.R.Potdar, animal sacrifice came to be introduced after the Pitryajna had come into existence. The number of animal sacrifices in Vedic yajnas is calculated to be 29 to 30. Among the seven Haviryajnas, Nirudhapashubandha is an animal sacrifice performed every six months or once in a year. This sacrifice required the services of six priests and a goat was sacrificed. In another sacrifice, Sautramani animals like goat, sheep and a bull were sacrificed for deities like Ashwini, Saraswathi and Indra respectively.

The animal sacrifice is a part of Soma sacrifice and is performed on the day of the Soma pressing and offering. The three animal sacrifices associated with the Soma sacrifice are Agnisomiya, Kratupashu and Anubandhya. While in Agnisomiya a goat is sacrificed, in Anubandhya a cow is immolated. In Ashwamedha sacrifice a horse was sacrificed through immolation. In animal sacrifice the offering of the Vapa (omentum) is very important. It was believed that the animal offered in a sacrifice went to heaven.

Though many scholars argue that animals were not sacrificed in Vedic Yajnas, among the fifty five practices prohibited in the Kali age (Kalivarjyas), include human sacrifice (Purushamedha), horse sacrifice (Ashwamedha), cow sacrifice (Gosava and Gomedha in Yajnas) and slaughtering of cow in honour of guests, pitrs and bridegroom. If these sacrifices had not existed during the Vedic period, the Puranas would not have issued injunctions against these practices in the Kali age. It is said that Madhvacharya (1238-1317 A.D.) felt disgusted with the slaughter of animals in Vedic sacrifices and totally dispensed with living animals as sacrificial victims and replaced it with animal-form, made of rice flour. According to B.N.K.Sharma, the new type of Vedic sacrifices with floor-made animals (Pista Pashu Yajnas) instead of living animals, introduced by Madhvacharya in all probability was partly due to the moral pressure and influence of Jain ideas. This shows that animal sacrifice existed even during 13^th century A.D.

Strange and obscene ceremonies

The Vedic sacrifice Gosava is described in the Tandya-Mahabrahmana, Jaiminiya Brahmana and Taittriya Brahmana. In this sacrifice, the sacrificer has to behave like a cow/bull for one year and as a part of this behaviour he has to unite with his mother, sister and any woman of his own gotra (family). All these things appear to be a part of animalism which is a primitive way of thought. Similarly in the Ashvamedha sacrifice some obscene rituals are prescribed to be performed. For instance, Shatapata Brahmana mentions the ritual of an sexual intercourse between the dead sacrificial horse and the chief queen and also an obscene dialogue between the priests and the queens of the sacrificer. Another ritual performed on the Mahavrata day in the Sattra sacrificial session is the sexual union between a man and a woman, both strangers. According to G.U.Thite, the above mentioned queer and obscene rituals are impossible to be performed by the civilized people and it is doubtful whether these rituals were actually performed. In the view of G.U.Thite while studying the Vedic texts dealing with the Vedic rituals we have to be very cautious in accepting any ritual to be a reality. Just in the case of Puranas, in the case of ritual texts also we have to assume that there were some over enthusiastic authors who were interested in making exaggerations and writing fictitious things. Hence it will be too simplistic to take for granted everything mentioned in the Vedic texts to be realistic or historical.

Opposition to Vedic sacrifices

Even during the early days of the Rigvedic period there was opposition to sacrificial performances. The Panis and the Dasyus were prominent among those who opposed sacrifices. R.N.Dandekar opines that the followers of the Vratya cult, the Brahmacarin cult and the Muni cult (with which Rudra was closely associated) had no faith in the efficacy of the Vedic rituals. According to R.C.Hazra, Rudra was antagonistic to Vedic sacrifices and destroyed it even in the absence of the least provocation from the sacrificers. In order to advance this sinister work of his, Rudra took more care to kill those men of wealth among the Vedic people who encouraged and financed the performance of these generally expensive religious rites. The Ramayana gives accounts of the hostility between the offerers of sacrifices and the Rakshasas who were opposed to the performance of sacrifices. It is interesting to note that the Vedic hymnists invoked Agni to dispel the depredation of the Rakshasas and to destroy them. The Rakshasas were opposed to the efficacy of fire because wild forest fires affect the forest dwelling of the Rakshasas and deprive them of natural goods such as fruits and roots and also scare away animals. The Carvakas vehemently criticized the Vedic rituals and animal sacrifices and called them as meaningless. The priests say that the animals sacrificed in the yajna attain heaven. If so, why did they not send their own parents to heaven by sacrificing them in the yajnas, they questioned? Eminent scholars like M.Hiriyanna, S.Radhakrishnan, R.K.Mookerji, R.D.Ranade and others opine that the Upanishads were opposed to sacrifices. To give a few instances, the Munduka Upanishad (I.2.7) condemns Yajna as leaky vessels. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (3.8.10) says that performing sacrifices, giving charities and doing austerities for years together is of no use without the knowledge of the Brahman. Similarly Bhagavatism placed devotion to God a higher place than performance of sacrifices. For instance in Bhagavata Purana (3:32:2-7) Kapila says that while a person engaged in pravritti dharma, that is worshipping gods and forefathers with sacrificial ceremonies will be born again and again; whereas one who is engaged in nivritti dharma, that is worshipping Hari with devotion and surrendering all his action to Him will merge with the Universal Consciousness. At a later stage we find both Buddhism and Jainism opposing the Vedic sacrifices and its rituals. Basaveshwara the founder of Lingayat sect was also opposed to Yajnas and offering of animals in oblation.

Different interpretation of Yajna

Yajna is derived according to lexicographers from the root ‘Yaj’. Yaj is defined as ‘deva puja’ or its equivalent ‘worship of the deity’. Hence according to M.Yamunacharya worship in the philosophy of Yajna involves offering oneself to the service of the Highest in him, in a spirit of dedication. The Chandogya Upanishad interprets the Yajna in terms of righteousness rather than in terms of ritual. Accordingly Yajna (sacrifice) is obtaining the world of Brahman by means of abstinence (brahmacharya). According to Sahebrao.G.Nigal, Yajna, far from being ritualistic, have social and spiritual significance. The so-called killing in sacrifice is to be understood symbolically. Here Manyu (wrath) is said to be Pashu (animal) to be sacrificed at the altar of fire. Thus the killing of Pashus clearly means the killing of the animal in man. Yajniyavritti is nothing but the spirit of sacrifice or the spirit of dedication in doing great and noble deeds. In Bhagavad Gita, Yajna means the observance of the niyata karma without attachment, without desire for the result and without the feeling that this is done by me and I. Bhagavad Gita refers to several types of Yajnas like Tapoyajna, Yogayajna and Jnanayajna and considers Jnanayajna as superior to dravyayajna which consists of throwing oblations into the fire. According to Vishnu Prasad Bhatt, Upanishads also have their own concept of sacrifice which is meditation upon the Brahman by which one can get perpetual bliss and accordingly can get rid of the cycles of rebirth. While the performance of Brahmanical sacrifices is very much tedious, complicated and mechanical, the Upanishad sacrifices are very simple and are performed within the heart, that is to say here, one is more concerned with the purity of heart than with the vidhis (methods) which are essentially to be found in the sacrifices of the Brahmanas. It is said that the Bhagavata Purana had prophesied that the Kali age is not the age for the sacrifices of the Vedic type and a new type of sacrifice will come into being and that will be in the form of singing in praise of God. Hence in 16^th century A.D., Sri Chaitanya came with a new type of Yajna, the Nama-Yajna that is the congregational singing of the name of the Lord

Vedic sacrifices become redundant and fades into oblivion

According to P.V.Kane even in earlier times it appears that most Brahmins could not perform the daily Agnihotra due to their poor economic conditions. The daily Agnihotra required the maintenance of at least two cows, besides thousands of cow-dung cakes and fuel sticks. Hence sacrifices like Agnihotra, Darshapurnamasa (in which four priests were employed) and the Caturmasyas (where five priests were required), the householder was required to be well-to-do. And Soma sacrifices could be performed only by kings, nobles and the rich. Even sacrifices like Ashwamedha must have been rare though we learn from inscriptions and literary traditions that kings like Pushyamitra Sunga and Samudragupta performed the Ashwamedha and king Kharavela, the Rajasuya sacrifice. The Atharvaveda (xi.7.7-8) regards the Rajasuya, Vajapeya, Ashwamedha, the Sattras and several other sacrifices as utsanna (gone out of vogue). During the centuries of Muslim domination no help from royalty could be expected and so the institution of Vedic sacrifices languished. As even the basic Srauta rite, Agnihotra had practically gone out of general practice and was not relevant to religious life in those times, the Kalivarjya prohibits the performance of certain Srauta and Grhya rites including the Agnihotra. Over a period of time temple worship took the place of Srauta and Smarta practices and certain rituals imitating the character of Srauta rites were incorporated in ceremonies like Chandihoma, Vishnuyaga and worship of Rudra, wherein tantric elements are also present.

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