Ideas, beliefs and concepts which evolved Hinduism

In Hinduism, animism and polytheism, pantheism, panentheism and henotheism, dualism, monotheism and pure monism exist side by side. The communication with gods can be done through elaborate rituals, through trance, through Yoga and asceticism, through offerings of animals and through bhakti (devotion). Beliefs in Karma, rebirth and casteism are questionable and not considered as blasphemy. Hindus are free to choose their ishtadevata, the deity to whom they wish to devote themselves fully. They are also free to change their favourite deity. All these factors make one to consider Hinduism as not one religion but a group of distinct Indian religions. The above factors was the reason according to Heinrich Von Stietencron for Hinduism to create a culture of accepted diversity, able to develop generous liberality and tolerance between religions and ideologies to a degree which civilizations based on Judaism, Christianity and Islam were never able to achieve.

Hinduism, a Parliament of Religions

Even from very early times, there had existed in India side by side with the Vedic religion, several popular tribal religions. The gods and goddesses of these tribal people were different from the the divinities of the official Vedic divinities. So also the religious practices of the tribal religion were different from the Vedic religious practices.

There were pre Vedic gods like Pashupati – Yogishvara, Sivan, Sharva, Bhava, the cult of Mother Goddess. These gods were worshipped in the form of an image, or a carved figure or some other concrete symbol and were offered bali in the form of blood of animals. Yoga, penance and austerities, wandering mendicancy, ecstatic conditions engendered through special medicaments constituted some of the main factors of their religious practice which was known as Muni-Yati culture in contrast to the Vedic culture which was the culture of the Rishis. Just like the Vedic texts some literature of the non Vedic religious texts may have been produced in the Vedic age. But as no special efforts as in the case of the Veda were made to preserve it, those texts may have been lost forever.

These popular tribal religions soon came under the spell of Vedism and though they did not actually adopt the religious ideology and practices of Vedism in any appreciable measure they vowed allegiance to the Veda. The decline of Vedism offorded these tribal religions to assert themselves and even Vedism in order to meet the challenge of the heterodox movement encouraged these popular religions to a certain extent. Consequently most of the popular religions, with their variety of gods and religious practices came to be organised into one single but multi-charactered whole, which was held together by means of the thin thread of their allegiance to the Veda. This is the genesis of Hinduism.

Hence according to R.N.Dandekar, Hinduism in its origin was verily a parliament of religions, over which the Veda formally presided but whose normal functions like any other presiding authority in modern parliamentary systems, it does not seem to have noticeably influenced.

Hinduism has no trace of Vedic influence

The Vedic texts contain no Hindu dogma, no basis for a creed of Hinduism, no clear guidelines for the Hindu way of life. It may suffice to recall here the cyclical world-view, the doctrine of Karma and rebirth, the ethical principle of ahimsa and the soteriology of final liberation for all of these, the oldest and most fundamental Vedic texts provide no clear identifiable basis. The Hindu pantheon, the forms of worship and devotion (bhakti) and the temple cult are not Vedic. Some of the prominent features of Hinduism like bathing in holy rivers (Kumbh mela), taking out religious processions (rath yatra), celebrating festivals, collective singing (kirtana) are all alien to Vedic cult.

Many popular religious ceremonies participated by all sections of the Hindu society including Brahmins have nothing to do with Vedic cult. For instance in Karnataka, Bhutaradhane (worship of spirits), Nagaradhane (worship of Nagas), Karaga (pot worship), all had its genesis among the non-Brahmin communities.

Orthodox Brahmins were opposed to temple worship

Image worship was essentially non-Vedic in origin and was adopted by the Brahmin priests when Vedic sacrifices became too expensive and went out of vogue. Yet the orthodox Brahmanas looked down upon such priests and Manu states that the temple priests should not be invited to a sacrifice offered to the gods and manes. He regards the food given to them as wasted, a later text goes further and forbids the people to touch, or speak to, those who live on temple service. The excuse for despising the temple priests given by the orthodox Vedicists was that they (the temple priests) degraded religious devotion by making it a means of livelihood. But it should be noted that the Vedic priests themselves accepted big amounts of wealth as fees for sacrifices performed for their patron. Hence the main reason for criticising the temple priests was due to their being the custodians of non-Vedic traditions. The Samba Purana mentions that temple priests denounced the code of Manu which shows that originally the temple priests did not accept the social rules of Manu but followed a different tradition and this may be one of the reasons for their unfavourable position in the orthodox texts. Though from around 400 B.C. the use of images became popular among all Hindus, the Srauta Brahmins refused to adopt the cult of images. And till some two centuries ago (1800 A.D) there were Srauta Brahmins in existence who had never bowed down to idols. It was only after the identification of Vedic deities with non-Vedic popular divinities that the use of Vedic mantras in the ceremony of worship must have followed. But it remained confined to the members of the upper three varnas.

Brahmin Puranic writers unified and assimilated all cults into a single framework

In India there existed a vast variety of cultures and religions; from the most simple to the most complex or sophisticated. The Puranas played a tremendous role in unifying these cultures and religions. For instance the so called ‘little traditions’ like the influence of forests, worship in temples, worship of Mother goddess, worship of Shiva and Linga, worship of animals and trees and probably the practice of vegetarianism, teetotalism and ahimsa were all assimilated and integrated into a ‘new great tradition’ of Hinduism by the Puranas. The writers of Puranas absorbed and synthesized polaristic religious ideas, multiplex belief systems and cultic tradition and were able to religiously unify all possible classes and segments of society, literate as well as pre literate.

Popular Gods of Hinduism are all non-Vedic gods

Prominent gods of present day Hinduism like Shiva, Rama, Krishna, Jagannatha of Puri, Venkateshwara/Balaji of Tirupathi, Vittala of Pandrapura, Ayyappa of Sabarimalai, Muruga/Skanda/Subramanya, Ganesha, Hanuman, Durga, Kamakya Devi and a host of other gods and goddess are all non-Vedic gods. For instance Shiva called Rudra in Rigveda is referred as a relentless destroyer of sacrificial rites, a war-lord and cattle lifter. It is this Rudra who gets absorbed in Shiva. In the process of becoming Mahadeva, Shiva had also absorbed numerous other contradictory cultic male and female deities by the time of the Puranas like Ganapati, Muruga, Manasa, Durga, Amba who were deities specifically associated with tribals residing in forested and hilly areas. Another prominent god of modern day Hinduism, Vishnu absorbed and appropriated Balarama, the haladhara, god of agriculturalists, the cowherd god Gopala Krishna, Narayana, Jagannatha, Venkateshwara and numerous totemic cults through the unique mechanism of avataras (incarnation).

Avatara theory synthesised gods of various cults

The Avatara theory may be regarded as a major factor in the religious synthesis brought about by Hinduism. Originally, the different divinities like Rama, Krishna, Parashurama, etc., seem to have been the gods of different religious cults. In course of time when these cults federated themselves to form what came to be known as Hinduism, some kind of unity of godhead was sought to be achieved by those gods being represented as the incarnations of a one single god Vishnu. This also helped to elevate the status of the objects of worship of certain primitive cults.

Brahmins themselves disowned their gods

The Purana writers especially those who had a leaning towards Vaishnavism denigrated the Vedic gods to extol and elevate their own particular god. As Indra the Vedic god stood in the way of the ascendency of Vishnu, they distorted the Vedic accounts of Indra and even fabricated new stories to bring Indra into disrepute. Similarly false stories about Brahma, the gods of Brahmins were invented by the Purana writers affiliated to Shaiva and Vaishnava cults to belittle and disgrace him in the eyes of the devotees. The writers of Puranas were Sanskrit knowing scholarly Brahmins. If Gods like Indra, the popular and foremost god of Vedic Brahmins and Brahma were shown in poor light in the Puranas, it means that some section of the Brahmin community had lost charm with their gods and found gods of other religious cults appealing. So much so that they not only incorporated tribal deities but also some of their prominent physical traits and iconic features along with rituals and mythical beliefs connected with them. For instance, the image of Lord Jagannatha of Puri is known to manifest distinctly tribal features and continues to be crafted of wood; while Dattatreya is found to be represented in the Puranas as a forester given to strong spirituous liquor and who according to Markandeya Purana (xix.10-12) has to be worshipped with the offerings of meat, wine, perfume and garlands to the accompaniment of music. Spirituous liquor is said to be a weakness of yet another incarnation of Vishnu, namely Balarama.

Reasons for insisting Vedic origin of Hinduism

In spite of glaring evidence which proves that Hinduism has nothing to do with Vedism, many Hindus especially orthodox Brahmins insist that Hinduism is nothing but Vedism. This is because having spent a considerable time in memorising the Vedas with great effort, the truth that it has nothing to do with Hinduism will make their knowledge irrelevant and themselves jobless. Moreover many Brahmin mutts teach Vedas to children who spent nearly ten to twelve years memorizing the mantras and studying the Vedangas texts. The government provides grants to many of these mutts and it is a source of livelihood for many pandits. Many rich Hindus also provide donations to these mutts (though they send their children to convent schools and universities abroad). While disowning the Vedic background of Hinduism will affect the livelihood of a few people, its acceptance would give anti-Hindu forces lot of ammunition to criticise Hinduism and break unity among Hindus by harping on issues like caste discrimination, restriction imposed on Shudras to study Vedas, contents in the Manu Smrti wherein Shudras are degraded, etc., all features restricted only to the Vedic cult, but could now be used to defame Hinduism when identified with Vedism.

Disparaging Hinduism means disparaging the OBCs and Dalits

Many people make derogatory remarks against Hinduism thinking that it is a religion of Brahmins. But the fact is Hinduism comprises various religious cults and sects founded by non-Brahmins and Tribals. Hence criticizing Hinduism means abusing the ancestors of present day OBCs and Dalits. It should be noted that the role of Brahmins in Hinduism was that of a synthesizer, who brought all diverse and local cults under an all-India Sanskritized frame-work. His other role was that of a custodian of temples (constructed and patronized by non-Brahmins), the responsibility of which was handed over willingly by the non-Brahmins themselves.

Reference

1. P.L.Bhargava – The Origin and development of Puranas and their relations with Vedic Literature, ABORI, vol – 58/59, Diamond Jubilee Volume, 1977-78

2. R.N.Dandekar - Hinduism and the Bhagavad Gita: A fresh approach, Journal of the Oriental Institute, M.S. University of Baroda, vol – xii, No.3, March 1963, p.233

3. R.N.Dandekar – Early Indian Philosophy – Some Casual Reflections, ABORI, vol-75

4. R.N.Dandekar – God in Hindu Thought, ABORI, vol 48/49. Golden Jubilee, 1968

5. Surabhi Sheth – Religion and Society in the Brahma Purana, Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 1979

6. Vijay Nath – From Brahmanism to Hinduism: Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition, Social Scientist, vol – 29, No 3/4, March-April 2001

7. Krishna Mohan Shrimali – The Formation of Religious Identities in India, Social Scientist, vol – 45, No 5/6 May-June 2017

8. Wilhelm Halbfass – Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, 1991 ,pp: 1,2

9. Suvira Jaiswal – Origin of image worship and its rituals, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol – 28, 1967

10. J.N.Farquhar – Temple and Image Worship in Hinduism, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, No.1, January 1928

11. Heinrich Von Stietencron – Hinduism: On the Proper use of a Deceptive Term in Gunther – Dietz Sontheimer, Hermann Kulke Edited: Hinduism Reconsidered, Manohar, New Delhi, 2001

Ashvins, the Deified Healers of Ancient India

The Ashvins are mentioned in the Rigveda, the Mahabharata and the Puranas as divine physicians who restored eyesight to the blind and hearing to the deaf, blessed children to the barren and revived life of the dead, cured leprosy, knew the art of rejuvenation and midwifery and possessed the skill of surgery. The Ashvins are historically considered the original expounders of medicine during the primitive period of Ayurveda.

The Ashvins are known in the Rigveda to be offsprings of Vivasvan and Saranyu. Sometimes they are called Nasatya and in later Vedic literature the two are differently referred to by two individual names, Nasatya and Dasra. The name of Ashvins as Nasatya is mentioned in the Boghazkoi inscription dated 14^th century B.C. along with other Vedic gods like Indra, Varuna and Mitra.

The Ashvins may have been human first, physicians and surgeons in whom their admiring patients looked upon as persons possessing supernatural powers and then were deified in view of their benevolence and the efficacy of their aids. By the time the hymns of Rigveda were composed they had fully attained the status of gods. In terms of hymns dedicated to them they rank next to Vedic gods, Indra, Agni and Soma having 54 entire hymns and several others in part addressed to them.

Among the Vedic gods Rudra is appealed to remove sickness and is called the greatest physician among physicians and appears superior to Ashvins. But there is no instance cited in the Rigveda in which Rudra is shown to have administered his medicine, while there is a large number of such illustrations on the side of Ashvins. Even in the case of other gods like Surya and Varuna who are referred as healers, the Ashvins stand unique among all of them by virtue of the practical instances which they have to their credit. One speciality of the Ashvins was their followers could approach them directly and without the help of intermediaries for remedial measures unlike other Vedic gods where the intervention of the priest was found necessary to gain their favour.

Founders of Chavanaprasha

In Ayurveda there is an invigorating tonic known as Chavanaprasha, a tonic for regaining vigour and strength. It was this tonic which the Ashvins gave to sage Cyavana and this was later prescribed by Cyavana to others. The Ashvins were said to be fond of Madhu (honey) and said to have learnt the secret of honey-lore (madhyvidya) from Dadhyanc. Honey has an important place in the science of medicine and it possesses valuable healing properties and is used as a soothing drug. The constant association of the Ashvins with Madhu shows that it may have been a popular drug which they administered.

Originally the Ashvins were benevolent kings

Yaska says that originally the Ashvins were beneficent kings. They may actually have gone about healing the sick, rescuing men in distress or salvaging those in shipwreck. They may have been kings who were fast riders and fond of their horses so that they came to be inseparably connected with them. Later after their death, people wishing to cherish their memories and remembering their innumerable kind acts deified them. Naturally there was opposition and violent resistance by the worshippers of the orthodox pantheon, devotees of respectable gods like Indra on the ground that these (Ashvins) were mere men with no sanction of tradition or antiquity to their credit, whose human history was recent and still fresh in men’s mind and whose achievements (viz., healing the sick and helping those in distress) were unworthy of bona fide divinities and hence unfit for Soma offerings.

The social taboo against the Ashvins is understood better if we remember the position of doctors in ancient Indian society. A passage from Mahabharata says that offerings to a Brahmin who practices medicine become pus and blood. Manu also lays down that a physician should be avoided in a sacrifice. The Vasishta Dharmasastra says that a doctor may not be invited in sacred ceremonies. The Apastamba Dharma Sutra prohibits the partaking of a physician’s food. This resistance was overcome gradually; a section of the people started worshipping the Ashvins and others followed them and later they received their due share of the Soma libation.

The episode of Ashvins replacing the original head of Dadhyanc with that of a horse and finally putting back the original also betrays their human origins. If they had been gods they could have brought back the human head to Dadhyanc even after it was cut off by Indra. But the Ashvins did not do so. It is also possible to imagine that they had placed an artificial horse head, looking like a mask above the original head of Dadhyanc. So when Indra came and took off the head, it was the artificial horse head which stood over Dadhyanc’s original head that was removed.

The dual nature of the Ashvins may have been a later addition and that the Ashvins originally may have been only one. The circumstances that gave rise to the duality may have taken place in this way. The human Ashvin, after he was deified, became a divine being. So he appeared, first as a person who had a two fold – human and divine existence and then his two fold existence developed the conception of the Ashvins as two beings- a human Ashvin and a divine Ashvin.

Though works like Purvakaranagama, Suprabhedagama, Amshumadbhedhagama and Vishnudharmottara gives description of the images of the Ashvins, it is highly doubtful if ever they were sculptured and set up in temples, for at the present time we do not hear of the existence of such images anywhere in India as Svayampradhana deities. But their carvings as attendants of the Sun can be found on the same block of stones used for sculpturing of the image of the Sun.

Reference

Ganesh L Chandavarkar - Ashvins as Historical Figures, Journal of the University of Bombay, vol iii, part vi, May 1935

Jyotir Mitra – Ashvins, The twin celestial physicians and their medical skill, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol 45, 1984

T.A.Gopinatha Rao – Elements of Hindu Iconography, vol – 2, part 2, The Law Printing House, Madras, 1916

Sukumari Bhattacharji – The Indian Theogony, Firma KLM Private Ltd, Calcutta, 1978

A short note on the Cult of Dattatreya

Considered as the foremost in the line of divine teachers to incarnate on earth, Sri Dattatreya is venerated by both the orthodox and subaltern Hindus. The Puranas mention Dattatreya as the son of sage Atri and Anasuya. The story of his birth found in the Puranas is full of absurdities. According to F.E.Pargiter, Dattatreya was a descendant (not son) of a historic person Prabhakara, who is called Atri or Atreya. Rigopoulos Antonia is of the view that Dattatreya was a Yogin- possibly a historic figure who became legendary and later adapted into the more sanitized and bhakti oriented views of the Puranas. Similar is the view of J.N.Banerjea who says that Dattatreya seems to have been a famous sage in actual life, who was deified. It was in the Puranic period that Dattatreya was raised to the status of an avatara of Vishnu.

According to Brahmanda Purana, Dattatreya did penance from his childhood and became a hermit. According to Markandeya Purana (dated between 5^th to 7^th century A.D.) he was staying near a water reservoir on Sahyadri mountain and was called Avadhuta. Avadhuta is a generic term for those enlightened sages of India who wander about, naked and free of all attachment to the world. In the Jabalopanishad, Dattatreya is referred to as a Paramahamsa and there is an Upanishad named after him. Texts like Avadhuta Gita and Tripura-rahasya are attributed to Dattatreya.

Dattatreya is always connected in tradition with the great Haihaya king Arjuna Kartavirya who propitiated him and was favoured by him. This means that Dattatreya was a contemporary of Parashurama, who exterminated Arjuna Kartavirya and who is also considered an avatara of Vishnu.

Evolution of Dattatreya’s worship

According to Harivamsha, Vishnu assumed Dattatreya’s incarnation for the specific purpose of the revival of true knowledge – Sat-dharma. This emphasis on the role of Dattatreya as the saviour of truth and knowledge is of cardinal importance in understanding of the Dattatreya’s cult. It is this emphasis that is the origin of the custom of referring to Dattatreya as Sri Guru. Once this concept of Dattatreya as ‘Guru’, the great preacher of dharma, had taken firm root in the religious tradition of the society, a very interesting phenomenon occurred. New sects and philosophical systems that arose later on, especially during the 9^th and 13^th century A.D., have attempted to bring Dattatreya and his great prestige in their fold.

The Shaktas were probably the first to do so, as the Markandeya Purana would show. It depicts Dattatreya engaged freely in the enjoyment of wine and meat and practising the five ‘ma’ kar rites of the Shaktas. He chose Mahur, the famous Shakta centre as his abode, according to that Purana.

Next came the Nath Sampradayins who claim Dattatreya as their guru. The Goraksha-Siddhanta Samgraha quoting the Tantra-maharnava mentions Dattatreya as one of the 12 great Nathas or Maha Nathas: seventh in rank. The Natha Yogins played a substantial role in the expansion of Dattatreya’s cult and it was primarily through Nathism that Dattatreya was introduced to the Marathi speaking area and was adopted by the Mahanubhavas. Similarly, the Aghoris consider Dattatreya, the first teacher (Adi-guru) and Shiva incarnate.

Shankaracharya’s relationship with Dattatreya

Shankaracharya is traditionally credited with the authorship of various hymns in Dattatreya’s praise, such as Dattatreya-bhujanga-stotra. According to Shankara-vijaya-vilasa, Dattatreya manifested himself to Shankaracharya at Badrinath. The Juna Akhada at Ujjain- one of the seven Akhadas founded by the Dashanami Naga Sannyasins has Dattatreya as its tutelary deity, identified as Rudra-Shiva. Dattatreya’s link to Shankaracharya and the Dashanami order was certainly inspired by the former’s characterization as a divine Jnana-Yogin.

The Mahanubhava sect

The Mahanubhava sect was founded by Guru Chakradhara (died 1272 A.D.). They acknowledge in the Reality of one god Parameshvar, who has five major incarnations: Krishna, Dattatreya and three sect figures namely Cangadeva Raul (Chakrapani), Gundam Raul (Govinda Prabhu) and Chakradhara. The Mahanubhavas rejected the caste system and the worship of idols and refused to acknowledge the ritual and scriptural authorities of Brahmins. They regard Bhagavad Gita, the Bhagavata and the Sutrapatha (a collection of aphorisms of Chakradara) as the standard and classical religious works.

Dattatreya Sampradaya

The Dattatreya Sampradaya was founded by Narasimha Sarasvati (1378-1458 A.D.) was a religious order, orthodox in its outlook and which stressed the values of ritual observances and believed in the varnashramadharma (caste system). The basic religious text of this Sampradaya is the Guru Charitra written in Marathi by Sarasvati Gangadhar around 1538 or 1550. The devotees of this Sampradaya consider and revere Sripada Vallabha (1323-1353 A.D.) and Narasimha Sarasvati as the historical avataras of Dattatreya. The important pilgrimage places connected with this Sampradaya are Audumbar and Narsobavadi in Maharashtra and Ganagapur in Karnataka. Popular saints of Maharashtra like Eknath and Dasopant were devotees of Dattatreya.

According to G.S.Ghurye the credit for the spread of Dattatreya’s cult in Maharashtra goes to Narasimha Sarasvati. Similar is the view of Rigopoulos Antonio who says that Narasimha Sarasvati may be considered as the actual founder of the religion of Dattatreya in the Marathi region.

Representation of Dattatreya

Dattatreya is now represented with three heads and six arms and is surrounded by four dogs of different colours said to represent the four Vedas and by a cow said to represent Mother Earth. This three headed portrayal of Dattatreya was popularized by Narasimha Sarasvati and one can find no certain reference to this modern three headed Dattatreya prior to the work Guru Charitra composed around 1550 A.D. The oldest carving of Dattatreya represents the deity in a standing posture with one head (ekmukhi) with two or four arms, often bearing the common emblems of Vishnu, coupled with the Padukas, usually placed in front of the murti. At Mahur Dattatreya is worshipped in one headed form. The Vishnu-dharmottara Purana says that Dattatreya should be sculptured exactly like sage Valmiki. In all Dattatreya’s shrines the chief object of worship is the Padukas (wooden sandals) of Narasimha Sarasvati.

At present, the Dattatreya cult is confined to western India – Gujarat, Maharashtra and northern Karnataka. Dattatreya is considered as the most potent deity for driving out evil spirits and today the important centres of the Dattatreya cult are more well known for their miraculous supernatural powers rather than centres of philosophical learnings or Yoga. There is little doubt the latter would have been more befitting to Sri Dattatreya’s role as Guru - the preacher of dharma, says M.S.Mate.

Reference

• Antonio Rigopoulous – Datta – The Immortal Guru, Yogin and Avatara, State University of New York Press, 1998

• M.S.Mate – Temples and Legends of Maharashtra, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1962

• G.S.Ghurye – Gods and Men, Popular Book Depot, Bombay, 1962

• Hariprasad Shivprasad Joshi – Origin and Development of Dattatreta Worship in India, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, 1965

• F.E.Pargiter – Ancient Indian Historical Traditions, London, 1922

• Jitendra Nath Banerjea - Hindu Iconography (Vyuhas and Vibhavas of Vishnu), Journal of The Indian Society of Oriental Art, vol - xiv, 1946

• I.M.P.Raeside – Dattatreya, Bulletin of the School of Oriental & African Studies, University of London, vol.45, No 3, 1982

• Haridas Bhattacharyya – (Editor) –The Cultural Heritage of India, vol – IV, Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta, 1956

• P.V.Kane – History of Dharmashastras, vol -5, part-2, BORI, Poona, 1962

• Vettam Mani – Puranic Encyclopaedia, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1975

The Long-Lost Sect of Brahma

Brahma, distinct from Brahman, the all-pervading Eternal Spirit, is the first member of the Hindu Triad, the other two being Vishnu and Shiva. Brahma’s principal function is creation. The concept of the Hindu triad does not seem to have come into vogue until the advent of the Pauranic period, for in the time of Yaska, the deities who were generally grouped together as the triad were Agni, Vayu or Indra and Surya. According to Brindavan Bhattacharya, the above-mentioned Vedic gods were replaced by Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva during the Pauranic period.

Allegorical meaning of the Hindu triad

With regards to the allegorical meaning of the triad, these gods represent the three fundamental stages of life, namely childhood, youth and old age or Brahmachari, Gruhasta and Sannyasi. Brahma’s features are exactly those of a Brahmachari, he holds a kamandalu, puts on a kashaya cloth and carries the Vedas, all of which are the requisites of a young Brahmachari. Metaphysically, the triad represents the three Gunas (principles) of the universe, namely Rajas (activity), Sattva (intelligence) and Tamas (inertia). Mythologically, Brahma created the world; Vishnu preserves the creation by removing the destructive elements in his various incarnations; and Shiva is responsible for pralaya or the dissolution of the world.

Prajapati, the creator during the Vedic period

We do not come across the name Brahma in the Vedic literature. The idea of the creator was present, but this creator was not yet identified with Brahma. The Rigveda mentions Prajapati as the creator and his name as a distinct deity occurs only four times. Prajapati became the most prominent god during the Brahmana period. The Brahmana literature presents Prajapati as a most significant god, and as a creator, he is identified with Vishvakarman. In the Brahmana period, Prajapati was not only the creator but also the preserver. The Brahmana period was the golden age of the institution of sacrifice, and Prajapati played a very prominent role in the foundation and development of this institution. The Aitareya Brahmana states that Prajapati desirous to propagate and to be many and having practiced tapas created the three worlds, from which arose three lights – Agni, Vayu and Aditya, from which arose the three Vedas.

Names and functions of various Vedic gods transferred to Brahma

Bruhaspati and Hiranyagarbha, independent divine figures in the Brahmana period and the early Upanishad period, came to denote the god Brahma in later times. Similarly, Prajapati’s function and name were also transferred to Brahma. In Mahabharata, Hiranyagarbha is the name of Brahma. According to Manu, Svayambhu, desirous to produce beings of many kinds, created a golden egg (Hiranyagarbha) and in that egg, he himself was born as Brahma and he is also named Narayana. Bruhaspati is often regarded as the forerunner or the prototype of Brahma. But in the Mahabharata, Bruhaspati makes his appearance as the domestic priest (Purohita) of the gods, an office that he held during the Vedic period, while Prajapati is mostly identified with Brahma, the creator. From this we can assume that Bruhaspati seems to fulfill a priestly duty, while Prajapati is the deity worshipped. Hence, of all the gods prominent in Vedic literature, it is Prajapati who has the greatest number of functional similarities with Brahma.

Antiquity of Brahma’s worship

Brahma was an ancient god and he assumed various forms and names in different parts of India at different ages. According to Tarapada Bhattacharyya, there was a pre-Vedic cult known as the Ratra cult, mainly and originally associated with a creator god Brahma. In the Brahmanda Purana there is a verse that says that Brahma was adorable in the Sathya Yuga, Sacrifice (the period of Vedic religion) in the Treta Yuga, Vishnu was worshipped in the Dvapara Yuga and Shiva worshipped in all four Yugas. This verse thus indicates that the earliest religion consisted of Brahma worship and the worship of Shiva was really associated with Brahma’s. A Buddhist text Niddesa, mentions Brahma among the several deities worshipped during Buddha’s time. In Varahamihira’s Brhatsamhita, there are rules for the construction and erection of the image of Brahma, thus proving the widespread worship of the god during Varahamihira’s time (5^th or 6^th century A.D.). The Devi Purana (Upapurana) composed around 600 A.D. refers to the independent worship of Brahma. Brahma is mentioned among the principal deities worshipped in the 7^th century A.D. in Harsha’s plays and Bana’s Kadambari.

According to R.C.Hazra almost nothing can be known about the early history and character of the Brahma sect and the accounts which we find in the Markandeya Purana and Padma Purana are of comparatively late dates. But one clear factor about this sect was that it attached great importance to asceticism for the realization of Brahma, the Supreme Brahma.

Brahma was the god of Brahmanas and Rishis

The Brahmin caste must have a close relationship with Brahma as a god. This is evident from early Buddhist works like Majjhima Nikaya and Assalayana Sutta which claim that the Brahmins are the real sons of Brahma, they came from his mouth and were his real heirs. In Milinda Panha we hear that all men of those days, monks, itinerant teachers and Brahmins were worshippers of Brahma. Varahamihira gives a list of several sects that were flourishing a long time before his work was composed and here he mentions that the image of Brahma should be duly consecrated by Brahmanas well versed in Vedic lore and his worship should be according to Vedic rites, which shows that the main worshippers of Brahma were the adherents of the Vedic cult.

Tarapada Bhattacharyya opines that varnas (castes) were the names of different sects of India that existed in the pre-Vedic period. In the Puranas it is said that Brahma fixed the Brahma loka for Brahmins, the Indra loka for Kshatriyas, the Vayu loka for Vaishyas and the Gandharva loka for Sudras. From this, it may be inferred that the Brahmins were the original worshippers of Brahman or Brahma, Kshatriyas of Indra, Vaishyas of Vayu and Shudras of the Gandharvas. All these gods and sects were taken into a common homogeneous fold in the Vedic period, which gave a new form of worship of Brahma by introducing sacrifices and perhaps a new turn to the caste system.

Iconography of Brahma

According to Manasara, one of the standard works on sculpture, Brahma is represented with four heads, four hands, and one body. The palm on the left lower hand exhibits the posture of conferring boons (vara) while the right lower indicates protection (abhaya). The corresponding upper hands hold the water-pot (kamandalu) and the rosary (akshamala) or sometimes the sacrificial ladle. He is also sometimes shown holding a lotus and a manuscript of the Veda in his hands. His vehicle is a goose. He is attended by two goddesses, Sarasvathi on the right and Savitri on the left. Brahma with Savitri alone on his left side is called Prajapati Brahma and he has only one face. According to the text Rupamandana, the four faces of Brahma are symbolic of the four Vedas, the four yugas and the four varnas.

Worship of Brahma

It is said that vishesha puja for Brahma is forbidden and hence we rarely find temples exclusively dedicated to Brahma. However, in the triple shrine (tripurusha-prasada, trikutachala) for the tripurushadevas (Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara), Brahma is offered worship. But in the temples dedicated to Tripurushas located in the southern states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Karnataka, the place of Brahma is occupied by Surya, the sun god.

Though temples dedicated to Brahma are rare, his figures can be found adorning walls, pillars and ceilings in temples belonging to other gods. Also at Ellora cave temples, a number of figures of Brahma are found, the most famous being his life-sized representation standing side by side with Shiva and Vishnu. Among the images of Brahma preserved in museums, the image of Trimurti, kept in the Peshawar museum, belonging to 3^rd century A.D., has the three heads of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. In the Indian museum we can find the four headed Lingam, representing Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Surya. A four armed standing image of Brahma is preserved in the British museum and at Mathura museum we can find the image of Brahma seated on a lotus flower.

Temples dedicated to Brahma

The text, Rupamandana which contains the description of the temple of Brahma, mentions its parivara-devatas, the dvarapalakas, etc., which clearly indicate that the building of a separate temple for Brahma existed earlier. In the Madras museum, there is a bronze image of Brahma (utsava-vigraha) seated under a prabhavali which clearly points to the existence of Brahma worship even with grand festivals and processions.

The temple of Brahma at Pushkar in Rajasthan is one of the oldest existing temples dedicated to Brahma. We do not know the exact date during which the original temple was built, as all the old temples in north India suffered greatly at the hands of the Muslim rulers. The existing temple was rebuilt in 1809 A.D., by Gokul Chand Parekh, at a cost of Rs. 1,30,000. A stone inscription in Hindi in the possession of the Mahant of the temple says that during the time of Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh (1699-1743 A.D.), a Brahmin lady named Bai Phundi repaired the temple of Brahma in 1719 A.D. In the temple the image of Brahma is about the size of a man, has four faces, and is in a sitting posture, cross-legged.

Apart from Pushkar, temples dedicated to Brahma are found in Kheda-Brahma (belonging to 12^th century A.D.) in north Gujarat, at Nagara-Mahasthana near Khambhat or Cambay in Gujarat (reference to this temple is found in Prabandhachintamani, a work by Merutunga, wherein it is said that when Chalukya king Siddharaja (1095-1144 A.D.) was camping at Nagara-Mahasthana, when the flag was hoisted at the Brahma temple here, the flags of all the Jaina temples in Gujarat were lowered as per the king’s decree), at Dudahi in Uttar Pradesh, and at Basanthgarh (dated 7^th century A.D.) in Rajasthan.

Causes for the disappearance of the Brahma sect

In Mahabharata, it is said that when Brahma falsely claimed to have reached the top of the column (Sthanumurti of Shiva), Shiva cursed him, saying that he would never have a cult of his own. According to Sukumari Bhattacharji and Tarapada Bhattacharyya, these were mythological fabrications of the later period attempting to explain the actual absence or comparative rarity of the Brahma cult.

Jitendra Nath Banerjea says that the existence of feelings of jealousy and rivalry between various sects gave a free rein to the concoction of mythological stories and the construction of images in illustration to vilify the gods of their rival sects. For instance, Brahma is shown as Shiva’s charioteer in the latter’s Tripurantaka Murti or as his wedding priest in his Kalyanasundara Murti. Some Pancaratra texts, like Narada Purana and Bharadvaja Samhita write that gods such as Brahma should not be worshipped daily nor should ever be resorted to for the fulfillment of any desire.

Some scholars are of the opinion that the sect of Brahma became prominent during the period ranging from 200 to 600 A.D. and that the five gods of the smartas threw Brahma into the background towards the beginning of the 7^th century A.D.

According to R.S.Gupte, till the middle ages, Brahma was an important god who was worshipped. Later, many false stories were circulated about his personal character, which may have led the people to lose faith in him. Brahma having four or five faces so that he could look at his wife wherever she turned, Brahma falling in love with his own daughter, and Brahma taking another wife when his first wife Savitri delayed coming for Yaksha’s sacrifice, were apparently stories invented by both Shaivites and Vaishnavites to belittle and disgrace him in the eyes of the devotees.

Earlier the field of creation was specifically assigned to Brahma. But later he had many rivals like Rudra, Dharma, Manas, Ruchi and Akrti, who were said to be mentally created by Brahma and were also called as Prajapatis. This factor along with Brahma’s mild mild nature probably led to his decline in status.

Another plausible reason for Brahma, becoming rather unpopular among the devotees, according to Suresh Chandra was his granting of boons to Asuras without forethought. All the Asuras right from Hiranyakashyapu to Ravana received their boons from Brahma which made them singularly notorious for damaging the noble virtues of the world. Then it became necessary for Lord Vishnu to appear in his various incarnations to kill these Asuras. In the Puranas most of the Asuras are said to have obtained supernatural powers by a boon from Brahma and hence Brahma’s cult was considered mainly as a cult of the Asuras and that was one of the reasons for the decline of the sect of Brahma and his worship. The lack of his temples may have been another reason for the failure of the continuation of Brahma’s cult.

Reference

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