In the early epochs of the Vedic age and in the period of the Brahmanas and the Sutras, the killing of animals and consuming its flesh was quite common and was cleverly associated with the institution of the sacrifice.1 In the Rigveda frequent reference is made to the cooking of the flesh of the ox for offering to gods particularly Indra. For example in Rigveda X.86.14, Indra is made to say ‘They cook for me 15 plus 20 oxen’. In Rigveda X.91.14, it is stated that for Agni were sacrificed horses, bulls, oxen, barren cows and rams. In Rigveda X.79.6, it is suggested that the cow was cut up with a sword or axe.2
The great usefulness of the cow and the ox for agricultural purposes, in the family economy and as means of exchange must have powerfully contributed to making the cow a divinity.3 Hence in the Rigveda verses; I.164.27, IV.1.6, VIII.69.21, X.87.16, the cow is called aghnya- one that does not deserve to be killed. So it may be argued that in the times of the Rigveda only barren cows if at all were killed for sacrifices or meat and cows yielding milk were held to be not fit for being killed.4
Dharmasutras allowed meat consumption
All ancient Dharmasutras allowed taking of life for food and in sacrifice. Not only other animals, but even the cow was killed on certain occasions like Shraddha (mentioned in Apasthamba Dharmasutra II.7.16.25), for a distinguished guest in Madhuparka (mentioned in Astvalayana Grhyasutra I.24.22-26 and Vasishtha Dharmasutra IV.8), in the Ashtaka shraddha (mentioned in Hiranyakeshi Grhyasutra II.15.1, Baudhayana Grhyasutra II.11.51, Vaikhanasa-smarta-sutra IV.3) and a bull in the Shulagava sacrifice (mentioned in Ashvalayana Grhyasutra IV.9.10).5 The Apasthamba Dharmasutra (II.2.5.15) forbids the use of flesh to a teacher of the Veda in the months from Upakarma to Utsarjana. This shows that even Brahmanas who alone would ordinarily be teachers could take meat in the other months of the year.6 The most interesting prescriptions of flesh food are met with in connection with the Annaprashana ceremony (the first feeding of the child with solid food, generally taking place in its sixth month). According to Sankhyayana Grhyasutra, if the first solid food that is given to the child is goat’s flesh, it conduces to nourishment; patridge flesh gives holy lustre; fish swiftness and boiled rice with ghee endows splendour.7
Meat compulsory in Shraddha
The general rule in shraddha is that flesh is compulsory and only in its absence is vegetable food allowed. In Ashtaka ceremony the parts of the cow killed other than the omentum are given to the Brahmanas.8 The Apasthamba Dharmasutra says that pitrs are gratified for a year by the offering of cow’s flesh in a shraddha and that by the flesh of a buffalo, the gratification of pitrs extends to more than a year.9 The Visnudharmottara Purana (I.140.49-50) asserts that he who does not partake of flesh food in a row of diners at a shraddha goes to hell. The Kurma Purana (II.22.75) says that the Brahmana who is employed for the performance of a shraddha and does not eat flesh offered therein becomes a beast for 21 births.10
Offering of flesh to Gods
The Markandeya Purana gives the story of the birth of Dattatreya, calls him a yogin and asserts that he was offered wine and meat by his devotees (19.10-12).11 The Yajnavalkya Smrti states that among the things to be offered to Vinayaka it includes fish and meat (both raw and cooked), wine, radish, cakes and sweetmeats (modaka).12
Deification of the Cow
The formidable onslaught led by Buddhism and Jainism against himsa in general, that is against all killing, helped in particular the formulation of a ban on cow slaughter and beef eating. Also the rapid growing power and vitality of the Krishna cult induced increasing veneration for and virtual deification of the cow.13 According to Bhairabi Prasad Sahu, the veneration of cattle seems to be the outcome of their immense economic importance. The inviolability preached in didactic works appears to have been inspired by utilitarian needs. The cow is a multi purpose animal. Among its positive contributions milk, fuel, fertilizers, traction power, hide and beef immediately attract attention. Milk and beef are important, but traction power upon which cereal production depends is more important. The sacredness to the cow springs therefore from its utility rather than from the tradition of ahimsa.14
It is remarkable that even the works, Mitakshara and the Kalpataru written about 1100-1120 A.D. do not clearly say that in the Kali age flesh eating at shraddha is totally prohibited at least by Brahmanas. It was only in the works of the 12th and 13th century A.D. onwards the offering of flesh in Madhuparka and in shraddha came to be totally condemned.15 But offering of animals in sacrifices continued even during the 12th century A.D. It is said that Madhvacharya (1238-1317 A.D.) felt disgusted with the slaughter of animals in Vedic sacrifices and totally dispensed with living animals as sacrificial victims and replaced it with animal-form made of rice floor.16 According to B.N.K.Sharma, the new type of Vedic sacrifices with floor-made animals (Pista Pashu Yajnas) instead of living animals, introduced by Madhvacharya in all probability was partly due to the moral pressure and influence of Jain ideas.17
Footnotes:
V.M.Apte – The Cows in the RGVeda, The Quarterly Journal of Mythic Society, vol XLV, no.1, July 1954, p.22
P.V.Kane – History of Dharmasastra, vol II, part 2, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poone, 1941. p.772
Ibid, p773
Ibid, p.772
Ibid, pp: 776.777
Ibid, p.777
V.M.Apte – Social and Religious Life in the Grihya Sutras, The Popular Book Depot, Bombay, 1939, p.101
Ibid, p.100
P.V.Kane – History of Dharmasastra, vol IV, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poone, 1953. p.422
Ibid, p.423
P.V.Kane – History of Dharmasastra, vol II, part 2, p.726
Dr. R.C.Hazra Commemoration Volume -Part I, All India Kashiraj Trust, Varanasi, p.236
V.M.Apte – The Cows in the RGVeda, Op.cit, p.23
Bhairabi Prasad Sahu – Patterns of Animal use in Ancient India, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol-48, 1987, p.67
P.V.Kane – History of Dharmasastra, vol IV, pp: 424,425
C.M.Padmanabhachar – The Life and Teachings of Sri Madhvacharyar, Madras, 1909, pp: 147,148
B.N.K.Sharma – Philosophy of Sri Madhvacharya, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1962, p.12
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